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• Maria Skłodowska-Curie: discoverer of two radioactive elements
• Joliot-Curie and artificial radioactivity
• Rutherford’s Nuclear Atom
• Dalton and the atoms
• Lavoisier and the conservation of mass
• Democritus and the atoms

Microsoft Word - Nadia Hansen_rapport_formateret K Ø B E N H A V N S U N I V E R S I T E T D A N S K E S T E M M E R I U S A O G A R G E N T I N A I N S T I T U T F O R N O R D I S K E S P R O G O G S P R O G V I D E N S K A B En snert af dansk mellem pampa og urskov Det danske i to danskerkolonier i Argentina af Nadia Hansen redigeret af Jan Heegård Petersen og Karoline Kühl 2 ”I dag holder vores familie ligeså meget af vores rødder fra nord som af vores rødder fra syd. Vi er jungle, og vi er nordisk harmoni. Vi er højtrå- bende latinoer med skandinaviske skikke (…)” - Alicia Dick Engwald, 2014. 3 Indholdsfortegnelse FORORD ............................................................................................................ 4 DE DANSKE KOLONIERS TIDLIGE HISTORIE ............................................... 6 Danskertrekanten – en dansk koloni bliver til ......................................................................................... 6 Det danske sprog og danskhed i Danskertrekantens tidlige historie ........................................................ 7 De danske skoler i Danskertrekanten ..................................................................................................... 11 Opsamling .............................................................................................................................................. 13 Eldorado: Drømmen om det grønne guld .............................................................................................. 13 Det danske sprog og danskheden i Eldorados tidlige historie ................................................................ 16 Skolegang i den danske koloni i Eldorado ............................................................................................. 21 Opsamling .............................................................................................................................................. 21 DET DANSKE SPROG OG DANSKE KULTUR I ARGENTINA I DAG ........... 22 Dansk sprog og kultur i Danskertrekanten ............................................................................................ 23 Forholdet til Danmark blandt de andre danske efterkommere ............................................................... 29 Opsamling .............................................................................................................................................. 29 Eldorado i dag – en europæisk smeltedigel ............................................................................................ 30 Det danske sprog og danskhed i Eldorado i dag .................................................................................... 30 Forholdet til Danmark og til de andre danske efterkommere ................................................................ 34 OPSAMLING .................................................................................................... 35 Litteratur brugt i rapporten .................................................................................................................... 36 Andre kilder ........................................................................................................................................... 37 4 Forord Denne rapport er forfattet af cand.ling.merc. Nadia Hansen i forbindelse med et praktik- ophold ved forskningsprojektet DANSKE STEMMER I USA OG ARGENTINA ved Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab, Københavns Universitet. Rapporten giver et billede af, hvordan det, man med et ikke nærmere defineret begreb kan kalde ’danskhed’, itale- sættes blandt efterkommere af danske indvandrere i den såkaldte ’Danskertrekant’ på pampaen sydvest for Buenos Aires og i byen Eldorado i junglen i provinsen Misiones i det nordøstlige Argentina. Rapporten tager udgangspunkt i skriftlige kilder, i dokumentarfilm og i de inter- views, som forskere ved DANSKE STEMMER I USA OG ARGENTINA har udført under tre rejser til netop Danskertrekanten og Eldorado i 2014 og 2015. Interviewene har ikke haft det specifikke formål at afdække, hvordan de interviewede, informanterne, forholder sig til Danmark eller ’danskhed’. Det har snarere været formålet at få informanterne til at for- tælle om deres eget livsforløb, og herved har de undertiden givet udtryk for betragtninger om, hvordan de selv eller danskersamfundet har forholdt sig til Danmark og det danske, og hvad det vil sige at være dansk, danskargentinsk eller argentinsk med danske aner. Det er udtalelserne herom, der har bidraget til det billede, som rapporten tegner. Alle interviewene er tilgængelige til forskningsformål, og man kan få adgang til dem ved henvendelse til DANSKE STEMMER I USA OG ARGENTINA. Udsagn fra skriftlige kilder, offentlige publikationer og offentliggjorte film er påført kildehenvisning. Infor- manterne er derimod blevet lovet fuld anonymitet, og derfor gives der ikke specifikke personoplysninger om, hvem der står bag de udtalelser, som citeres. Vi vil dog gerne på denne plads have lov til at takke alle de danskargentinere der har bidraget til forsknings- projektet. Informanterne er citeret med deres egen måde at formulere sig på. Der kan derfor forekomme ordvalg og måder at sætte sætninger sammen på, som kan være uvante, men som ikke desto mindre er naturlige for informanternes måde at tale dansk på. Nadia Hansen har udført arbejdet med at gennemsøge kilderne for udsagn om ’danskhed’ og lytte interviewene igennem, og hun har udfærdiget rapporten. Lektor Jan Heegård Petersen og lektor Karoline Kühl, DANSKE STEMMER I USA OG ARGENTINA, har bearbejdet rapporten til offentliggørelse, og de har også bidraget til de afsluttende, per- spektiverende betragtninger. 5 Vi takker Carlsbergfondet, A.P. Møller og Hustru Chastine Mc-Kinney Møllers Fond til almene Formaal, Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab og Nordisk Forskningsinstitut for den generøse økonomiske støtte til det forskningsprojekt, som denne rapport er en udløber af. Også en tak til Ida E. Mørch for kommentarer til en tidli- gere version af rapporten. Jan Heegård Petersen og Karoline Kühl, Københavns Universitet, ’Danske Stemmer i USA og Argentina’ København, november 2016 6 De danske koloniers tidlige historie Den tidlige danske kolonihistorie i Argentina kan ses som et grundlag for at forstå den danskhed, der etablerede sig senere, og som kan stadig er til stede i dag, mere end 150 år efter, at de første danskere satte fod på argentinsk jord. Selvom en egentlig dansk udvan- dring til Argentina først skete i 1860erne, var der allerede i 1840’erne danskere at finde på argentinsk jord (Kjær 1991: 28-43). Danmark var på dette tidspunkt et bondesamfund med udpræget fattigdom grundet mangel på jord og arbejde til den voksende befolkning. 300.000 danskere udvandrede til Amerika, hvoraf omkring 12.900 af dem i perioden 1871 til 1930 valgte at bosætte sig i Argentina (Jarnum 2006: 12). De danske udvan- drere spredte sig over store dele af det sydamerikanske land – størstedelen syd for hovedstaden Buenos Aires i og omkring områderne Tandil, Tres Arroyos og Necochea – også kendt som ’Danskertrekanten’ (Jarnum 2006: 12), men der dan- nede sig også en gruppe af danske immigranter i hovedstaden Buenos Aires og i San Carlos de Bariloche i Andesbjergene. En mindre gruppe af danskere endte i Argenti- nas nordlige jungle, i provinsen Misiones i den by, der i dag hedder Eldorado, 1.200 km fra Buenos Aires, ved grænsen til Paraguay og Brasilien (Engwald 1938: 92). Det er disse to områder som vil blive undersøgt i det følgende. Nærmere bestemt skal vi se på hvordan danskhed omtales og opfattes, danskheden som den kommer til ud- tryk gennem brugen af det danske sprog, forholdet til Danmark og danske traditio- ner, samt hvilke følelser der er forbundet hermed. Udsagnene herom stammer fra den litteratur der eksisterer om de danske immigranter i Argentina, og fra de interview der er blevet optaget og udskrevet af forskningsprojektet DANSKE STEMMER I USA OG ARGENTINA (herefter DANSKE STEMMER). Danskertrekanten – en dansk koloni bliver til I 1844 satte lollikken Hans Fugl for første gang fod på argentinsk jord. Dette blev et møde, der senere hen skulle vise sig at blive altafgørende for, hvor i Argentina størstede- len af de danske udvandrere slog sig ned. Hans Fugls skæbne ville nemlig, at han endte på den frodige argentinske pampa i Tandil, 350 km syd for hovedstaden Buenos Aires. Den danske bosættelse på denne del af den argentinske pampa kan deles op i to bølger. Den første bølge var beskeden i antal og varede fra ca. 1860-1880 (Bjerg 1996: 7 134-135). Bølgen omfattede mennesker, der var udvandret på opfordring af Hans Fugl, der i 1859 var rejst tilbage til sin hjemegn for at rekruttere emigranter. Det lykkedes ham at overbevise flere landsmænd fra området omkring hjemstavnen ved Maribo på Lolland om at prøve lykken i Tandil (Bjerg 1996: 147). Den anden bølge fandt sted i perioden fra ca. midt 1880 til 1920, med de fleste immigranter registreret i perioden mellem 1910 og frem til første verdenskrig (Bjerg 1996: 134). Denne bølge var anderledes end den første, da den var langt større i antal og mere varieret i forhold til oprindelsessted. Der kom nu kom danskere fra hele Danmark, men især fra landområder i Midt- og Nordjylland og ufaglærte industriarbejdere fra Kø- benhavn (Bjerg 1996: 134). Da den anden bølge ramte Argentina, var Tandil langt mere udviklet, end da de første udvandrere ankom, og i starten af 1890’erne var der ikke mere jord at komme efter omkring Tandil, og danskerne begyndte at søge nye områder. De søgte især længere sydpå mod Tres Arroyos og ud mod kysten til Necochea, der efterhånden blev danskernes fore- trukne steder at slå sig ned (Bjerg 1996: 134). Der blev dog etableret bånd mellem de forskellige områder, og en dansk koloni blev på den måde etableret i ’Danskertrekanten’ omkring knudepunkterne Tandil, Tres Arroyos og Necochea. Det danske sprog og danskhed i Danskertrekantens tidlige historie Ifølge Bjerg (1996: 136) skete der i tiden mellem den første og anden bølge af dansk udvandring til Argentina en ændring i spørgsmålet om, hvorvidt det danske sprog og den danske kultur skulle bevares. Mens den første bølge ifølge Bjerg (1996: 135) ikke havde taget noget særligt initiativ til at bevare det danske sprog og den danske kultur, blev dette spørgsmål grebet anderledes an, da den anden bølge ankom. Dette skyldes især to forhold, mener Bjerg (1996: 135-137), og især det ene ser ud til at have haft afgørende karakter. Det første forhold vedrører det argentinske samfund, som de første danske udvandrere mødte: Et samfund, hvor der herskede en vis modstand mod udlændinge. Det andet for- hold har udspring i den grundtvigianske tankegang, der prægede den anden bølge af dan- ske udvandrere. I denne tankegang er tilhørsforholdet til det danske folk og modersmålet centrale elementer (Agertoft 2005: 1). Denne tankegang var især blevet forstærket i Jyl- land efter krigen i 1864 (Bjerg 1996: 136). Ifølge Bjerg (1996) kom denne anden bølge derfor til at præge normerne i de danske kolonier i Argentina i de næste mange årtier, særligt i forhold til bevarelse af det danske sprog og den danske kultur. 8 Allerede under den første bølge lykkedes det de danske udvandrere i Tandil i 1877, med Hans Fugl i spidsen, at få etableret den første danske kirkemenighed i Argen- tina. Dens formål var udelukkende religiøst og opstod på baggrund af et behov for at dyrke den lutheranske-protestantiske kristendom i et ellers udpræget katolsk land (Bjerg 1996: 135-141). Senere, under den anden bølge, blev der etableret flere danske menighe- der, blandt andet menigheden i Tres Arroyos i 1901 og i Necochea i 1918. I denne periode fik de danske menigheder i Danskertrekanten en langt større rolle også i det kulturelle liv. Menighederne havde ikke længere kun et religiøst udgangspunkt, men fungerede også som det sociale bindeled mellem koloniernes medlemmer. Med udgangspunkt i menig- hederne blev der etableret alt lige fra danske skoler, klubber og festligheder med danske traditioner i form af mad, folkedans, teater m.m. (Bjerg 1996: 142). Således var menig- hederne med til at holde fast på det danske sprog og den danske kultur. Bjerg (1996: 142) og Agertoft (2005: 6) er enige i, at menighederne spillede en aktiv rolle i indvandrernes måde at forvalte og videreføre danske traditioner og moralske værdier på, og dansk, danskhed og Danmark kom til at spille en stor rolle for livet i ko- lonierne. Dette førte blandt andet til en vis lukkethed overfor det omkringliggende sam- fund, hvad der kom til udtryk på forskellige måder. Fx nævnes det i litteraturen og i DAN- SKE STEMMERs interview, at det var ildeset at gifte sig uden for kolonien, og at de sociale sammenkomster udelukkende var for koloniens medlemmer (Erdem 2007), eller som det siges i et af interviewene: ”der var i mange år at de tillod ikke argentinere ind i klubben. Det var sådan lidt, at de fleste dansk-argentinere de havde fået det der, at de skulle ikke, vi skulle ikke, blande os med befolkningen du ved, det var lidt fjollet ikke, men sådan var det i mange år, så derfor der var jo klubber danske klubber i alle som i Tres Ar- royos og Orense og Tandil” Med ”det var lidt fjollet ikke” afsløres det, at holdningen nu er skiftet, tiden er en anden. Men det er også værd at bemærke, at informanten ikke ved, om det var dem eller vi, der havde den holdning, at man ikke skulle blande sig med resten af befolkningen. Det tyder på, at lukketheden har været stærkest i kvindens forældres og bedsteforældres generation. Adil Erdem skildrer i sin bog Indvandrernes Paradis fra 2007 den danske udvandring til Argentina og dens efterkommere. En af hans informanter er Mirna Ambrosius de Skov, 9 hvis oldeforældre på farens side var nogle af de første danskere, der bosatte sig i Tandil. Mirna er således 4.-generationsdansker, og hun citeres af Erdem om konsekvenserne ved det veletablerede danske samfund i Tandil: ”Dette velfungerende danske samfund i Tandil gjorde, at danskerne i de første mange år slet ikke havde brug for at tale spansk. Indbyrdes var der en god dialog mellem danskerne, som blandt andet hjalp hinanden med det sproglige. Det pa- radoksale var, at kvinderne slet ikke behøvede at involvere sig i det omgivende samfund. De var alle fuldtidsmødre på gårdene og dækkede hinandens sociale behov blandt andet igennem fælles sociale og kulturelle aktiviteter. Her skal det nævnes, at menighedsrådet spillede en stor rolle” (Erdem 2007: 65) Igen understreges det, at menighederne i de første mange år spillede en vigtig rolle i for- hold til at dække de sociale behov igennem aktiviteter. Mirna forklarer videre, hvilke konsekvenser dette tætte danske samfund har haft på hendes mormors spanskkundskaber: ”Jeg kan tydeligt huske, at min mormor i den grad ærgrede sig over, at hun ikke havde lært spansk, selv om hun havde boet i landet i 60 år. Hun følte det som en skam ikke at kunne tale sproget overhovedet, eller i hvert fald slet ikke nok til, at hun kunne begå sig sprogligt og kulturelt” (Erdem 2007: 66) Erdem fortæller, at vi skal helt frem til Mirnas generation, de unge piger født i 1940’erne, før der kommer et slags opgør med de begrænsninger det danske samfund i Argentina havde sat op. Mirnas generation kan ikke rigtig længere identificere sig med et Danmark, som de ikke længere har et forhold til udover sproget, der stadig taltes i hjemmene (Erdem 2007: 66). Dette billede af en minoritetsgruppe, der holder sig for sig selv, gengives også blandt flere af DANSKE STEMMERs informanter, fx i dette citat fra et interview, hvor en informant født i 1920’erne på landet udenfor Tres Arroyos bliver spurgt, om hans foræl- dre kun talte dansk: ”Ja, næsten for mange gange, dem der kom og hjælpet, de var danskere – og mange gange var de ikke, og så skulle man blande lidt. Og det samme med ma- den, den var jo også nærmest dansk. Hvis vi skulle til fødselsdag eller fest eller noget, så var det dansk. Der var ikke meget med at blande sig. Det var jo sådan lukket. Og du skulle heller ikke tænke på at gifte dig med en spansk, for det gik 10 ikke så godt. Til sidst så blev det jo blandet, man kunne ikke undgå det. Hvis der var en dansk fest, så var argentinerne ikke velkomne" Efterfølgende blev der spurgt ind til, om danskerne blandede sig med hollænderne, som også har udgjort en væsentlig af samfundet i og omkring Tres Arroyos, og til det var svaret: ”Hollænderne var meget lukket”, hvilket nok betyder, at dem blandede danskerne sig heller ikke med. Det er dog svært at give et præcist svar på, hvornår det begyndte at blive mere acceptabelt at gifte sig uden for kolonien, og hvornår det dominerende sprog i hjemmene og i klubberne gik fra dansk til spansk. Men Erdems bud på er, at der omkring 1940’erne kom et skifte blandt den yngre generation. Han understreger (2007: 66), at en vigtig faktor for, at det danske sprog blev bevaret i flere generationer, var, at mange danskargentinere ikke giftede sig med argentinere. Dette havde været utænkelig i de før- ste generationer. Der var en vis prestige i at gifte sig med en ung mand eller kvinde fra Danmark, fordi man på den måde fik det danske fornyet. Dette uddyber Mirna Ambrosius de Skov her: ”Vi skal huske på, at det var ikke nemt dengang at tage til Danmark. Når der endelig kom en ung dame eller mand fra Danmark, handlede det om at lære så meget som muligt af personen” (Erdem 2007: 67) Det danske sprog havde altså igennem flere generationer høj status, hvilket også betød, at mange af børnene, der var født i Argentina, havde dansk som førstesprog. Vi hører blandt andet flere af DANSKE STEMMERs informanter fortælle, at de ikke kunne spansk, da de startede i skole. Nogle lærte først spansk omkring 10-års-alderen i forbindelse med at de blev sendt i argentinsk skole. Et eksempel på det kommer fra denne kvinde som om- tales af sin mand i et af DANSKE STEMMERs interviews: ”Hun var ude på landet indtil hun var 10 år. Hun lærte dansk fra en dansker, der var hendes lærerinde. De talte dansk derhjemme. Hun lærte først at tale rigtig spansk da hun var 10 år. Alle argentinere spørger, hvor hun er født henne. Hun taler ikke rent argentinsk” Det har uden tvivl været svært for mange af børnene i de danske kolonier, når de startede i argentinsk skole. En anden af DANSKE STEMMERs informanter forklarer, hvordan han 11 selv og hans ældre søstre blev drillet i skolen på grund af deres mangel på spanskkund- skaber: ”Mine søstre, det gik svært for dem [da de kom i argentinsk skole], de grinede lidt ad os, og så kaldte de os russere. Hvis du har lyst hår, så er du russer. Det kunne vi sørme ikke lide" Senere i interviewet fortæller han om sine sproglige problemer i skolen: ”Jeg kunne ikke spansk indtil jeg var 7 år, det var ikke spor sjovt, jeg kunne ikke forstå noget”. Informan- ten fortæller endvidere, at han på den baggrund blev drillet, og hans hustru forklarer, at der den dag i dag stadig er ord, som han ikke udtaler rigtigt på spansk. Hun mener, at dette er tilfældet for mange af dem, der ligesom hendes mand har gået på den danske skole i Cascallares, vest for Tres Arroyos (se nedenfor). Det er muligt, at drilleriet har været medvirkende til, at de dansktalende børn har haft et stort ønske om at skifte helt over til spansk – også i hjemmene. De danske skoler i Danskertrekanten Udover menighederne viser den århusianske antropolog Per Agertoft, at også de danske skoler i Argentina spillede en stor rolle i bevarelsen af det danske sprog og danskheden: ”Det enkelte individ er i den konstruktivistiske optik formbart, og dets opfattelse af sig selv som del af et større fællesskab afhænger af den dannelse eller præg- ning, det gennemgår i forskellige fora. Således kan en nationalt orienteret geo- grafiundervisning og fædrelandssange i skolesystemet skabe mennesker, som identificerer sig med et bestemt nationalt fællesskab.” (Agertoft 2005: 9) Agertoft fortæller, at de danske skolefolk i Argentina ikke var imponeret over de offent- lige argentinske skoler i Danskertrekanten og myndighedernes måde at håndtere skole- spørgsmålet på, og de etniske privatskoler, som eksempelvis den danske kostskole, der blev oprettet i Cascallares i 1918, var én måde at afhjælpe den desperate skolesituation på. De private skoler kunne indfri de forventninger til en skoleuddannelse, som det ar- gentinske skolesystem ikke kunne (Agertoft 2005:63-65). Ifølge danskargentinerne var den danske skole i Cascallares helt op til i 1950’erne den bedste skolemulighed for folk, der levede ude på landet. 12 Man kan ikke komme uden om at skolen i Cascallares, der for mange elever langvejsfra var en kostskole, har spillet en meget væsentlig rolle for danskargentinerne i Danskertrekanten og for de danskargentinske institutioners historie. Det ville være inte- ressant med en kortlægning af de beslutningsprocesser der gik forud for oprettelsen af skolen, og af de hvordan man gennem tiden har ment at skolen bedst kunne uddanne eleverne til at være danske og argentinske, men desværre er de skriftlige kilder hertil gået tabt på ved en brand. En tidligere forstander på skolen, Helge Markvardsen, har dog genfortalt de dan- ske skolers historie i Argentina i et afsnit i Vartovbogen fra 1962 (Markvardsen 1962). Fra Markvardsen ved vi, at den første danske skolebygning blev bygget i 1898 som en højskole for danskargentinere over den almindelige skolealder, og at der blev givet un- dervisning på både spansk og dansk (Markvardsen 1962: 138). I 1908 blev der stiftet en dansk skoleforening, og på dette tidspunkt var der 60-100 elever på skolen i Cascallares. I 1917 kom der en argentinsk lov, der krævede at skoleledere skulle have en argentinsk lærereksamen. Denne periode anses også for at være skolens storhedstid, der varede indtil landbrugskrisen i 1929-1930. Endvidere ved vi fra Markvardsen, at der i 1919 blev åbnet en børneskole i Cascallares på grund af den store interesse, der havde været med højsko- len. Formålet med skolen var at skabe det bedste grundlag for danskheden og menighe- den. Han fortæller også, at der de første år har været omkring 65-70 elever. De fleste af eleverne kom fra de sydlige provinser omkring Buenos Aires, men der var børn også fra andre steder hvor danskere havde slået sig ned, fx Mendoza, Tucuman, Cordoba, Corri- entes, Pampa Central og Buenos Aires. Under landbrugskrisen fik skolen dog en tilbage- gang, da mange familier ikke længere havde råd til at sende deres børn af sted. I perioden 1925 til 1940 skete der en ændring i de danske skolers virke, som hænger sammen med udbygningen af det argentinske samfund og et generationsskifte indenfor den danske koloni. Den danske skole i Tandil er et eksempel på det. Skolen i Tandil gik fra at være en klar dansk skole, hvor den argentinske dimension var sekundær, til gradvist at blive en danskargentinsk skole. Her gik de nødvendige argentinske kund- skaber hånd i hånd med den danske dannelse. Dette er ifølge Agertoft begyndelsen på den langsomme nedsmeltning af danskheden: 13 ”[I 1962] indstilles driften helt. Muligvis pga. til dels den dårlige argentinske øko- nomi, men samtidig et billede på, at båndet til moderlandet er ved at være tynd- slidt, til at det kan holde meget længere.” (Markvardsen 1962: 157) I 1950-1960’erne er båndet til moderlandet eller til danskheden altså svagere, ifølge Markvardsen og Agertoft. Opsamling Det er tydeligt, at det danske sprog, og alt hvad der har med dansk at gøre, har haft stor prestige i den tidlige kolonihistorie. Sproget blevet bevaret i hjemmene og i koloniens aktiviteter. De danske menigheder og de danske skoler har spillet en stor rolle i bevarelsen af det danske sprog og danskheden, og ønsket om at bevare forholdet til moderlandet, dets traditioner og dets sprog var stærkt. Dette har også medvirket til, at det har været ildeset at gifte sig udenfor kolonien, og at kolonien i store træk lukkede sig for det omgi- vende samfund. Samtidig var der dog mange af de danske børn, der på grund af mang- lende spanskkundskaber havde svært ved at klare sig, når de kom i argentinsk skole. Eldorado: Drømmen om det grønne guld Den danske kolonihistorie i Eldorado adskiller sig på mange måder fra den danske kolo- nihistorie i Danskertrekanten: Den langt mindre, den blev etableret senere, og mange af dens medlemmer kom ikke direkte fra Danmark, men fra andre steder i Argentina (Eng- wald 1938). I det følgende afsnit vil vi se nærmere på Eldorados tidlige historie. Vi vil se, hvorfor danskere var blandt de første til at etablere en dansk koloni i Argentinas vilde urskov, 1500 km fra den første danske koloni i Tandil. Vi vil også se nærmere på, hvilken betydning disse meget anderledes og udfordrende geografiske omgivelser har haft for det danske sprog og danskheden for de mennesker, der valgte at bosatte sig i Argentinas ur- skov. Beskrivelsen trækker på Olaf Johansens og Nina Raben de Engwalds beretninger fra den første tid i Eldorados og på udtalelser fra DANSKE STEMMERs informanter. Ligesom Hans Fugls færden og ihærdighed på mange måder blev afgørende for, hvor størstedelen af de danske udvandrere bosatte sig i Argentina, spillede én bestemt mand en stor rolle for, at der blev etableret en dansk koloni i Eldorado. Hans navn var Carl Engwald, og han var ankommet til Argentina fra København i 1911 sammen med 14 sine to brødre. Men modsat flertallet af danskere blev han på ingen måde en etableret del af den danske koloni Danskertrekanten (Engwald 1938: 18-136). På et tidspunkt fik Eng- wald arbejde ved et firma, hvis ene ejer, den entreprenante tysker Schwelm, havde købt et meget stort stykke jord i Misiones’ vilde urskov. Schwelm ønskede at kolonisere om- rådet og inviterede i den forbindelse Engwald en tur med op til det, der i dag er byen Eldorado. På denne rejse blev de enige om, at området i første omgang skulle koloniseres med danskere (Engwald 1938: 89). Engwalds kone Nina forklarer i sin bog Eldorado hvorfor: ”Hvis en Kolonisation skal lykkes, gælder det først og fremmest om at faa fat paa de rigtige Mennesker straks, og det var min Mands faste Overbevisning, at der ikke fandtes nogen, der var bedre til løse Koloniseringsopgaven end danske Landmænd – de er dygtige og grundige i deres Arbejde og stræber i Reglen efter at kunne naa videre end til blot at klare Dagen og Vejen.” (Engwald 1938: 89- 90) Schwelm og Engwald var også enige om, at jorden skulle udbydes til en billig pris, selv mennesker med en meget beskeden kapital skulle være i stand til at købe. Engwald var overbevist om, at Misiones var fremtidens land, som ville gøre enhver nybygger til en selvstændig og uafhængig mand. Disse tanker indgik i den hvervekampagne, som Eng- wald blev ansvarlig for (Engwald 1938: 90). Kampagnen foregik via annoncering i aviser og rejser sydpå til Danskertrekanten, hvor Engwald holdt foredrag for at vække interessen blandt sine landsmænd (Engwald 1938: 91). Det gennemgående motto, der skulle over- bevise landsmændene, lød: ”Giv en mand en have til leje, og han vil forvandle det til et øde, giv en mand et øde til eje, og han vil forvandle det til en have” (Engwald 1938: 91). En af de landsmænd, der blev tiltrukket af Engwalds kampagne, var Olaf Johan- sen, der i 1920 var kommet til Necochea fra Danmark sammen med sin familie (Johansen 2009: 21-25). Johansen var kommet til Argentina for at arbejde sig op fra bunden, men han måtte erkende at vejen op var lang og drøj: ”dette var rigtignok ikke den frie, even- tyrlige Tilværelse, jeg havde drømt om” (Johansen 1934: 40). Johansens trængsler skyld- tes uden tvivl, at han kom til Argentina på et så sent tidspunkt, hvor den gode jord allerede var købt op, og det var ikke nemt at gå fra bondekarl til godsejer (Johansen 1934: 42). Men Johansen bevarede sin drøm om at blive en uafhængig mand: 15 ”Og saa viste der sig virkelig noget. En meget rig Englænder (…) havde købt en mægtig Skovstrækning i Territoriet Misiones (…) Han havde planer om Kolonisa- tion, og af en eller anden Grund var Skandinaverne udsete til at tage de første Tørn. En Bogholder i Firmaet var tilfældigvis Dansker, og gennem ham organise- redes nu en Kampagne med Annoncer og Artikler i dansk-argentinske Aviser (…) indtil alle dansktalendes Interesse var Vakt – for eller imod (…) Fotografier fra skønne subtropiske Urskove (…) Regnskaber med næsten bare Indtægtsposter flimrede for vore gridske Øjne (…) Denne menneskekærlige Englænder var netop slumpet til at købe det allerbedste Land i Verden.” (Johansen 1934: 41-42) Ikke alle lod os lokke med ord om et forjættet land nordpå, men andre valgte at prøve lykken. Således blev der i påsken 1921 arrangeret en fælles rejse op til junglen for ca. 20 danskere (Engwald 1938: 92), og senere bosatte de første danskere sig op omkring det der skulle blive til Eldorado, heriblandt familien Johansen. De rejste sammen med en anden dansk familie, og straks ved ankomsten startede begge familier med at arbejde på en lote, et jordstykke, som andre havde købt. Her skulle de dyrke det grønne guld dvs. yerba-planten, planten, der, som Engwald havde lokket med, skulle gøre dem til uaf- hængige (og velhavende) mænd (Johansen 2009: 34). Siden fulgte flere danske familier og enlige ungkarle op gennem 1920’erne (Johansen 2009: 44), mange af samme grund som Johansen, som det her fortælles i et af DANSKE STEMMERs interview: ”Hvad skete der, danskerne kom fra Danmark til Buenos Aires, og de kunne ikke sproget. Der gik de så hen til Tandil, og der var han [bedstefar] 2 år, og der havde han indset, at han ville altid være almindelig arbejder og aldrig komme til at have egen jord, og så var det en dansker, der lavede propaganda ”kom til Misi- ones, der får du land”, Engwald, derfor kom han til Misiones i 1921” Og at det blev lokket i stor stil, fremgår af et andet interview: ”Og så havde Engwald, som var den, der fik mine forældre til at købe heroppe, fordi de sagde, her kan du, her kan du, det grønne guld. Men så sagde min far; ”jamen jeg kan ikke bo oppe i urskoven”. ”Jamen det behøver du ikke, du har jo fået de der penge i Tyskland, så du kan bo i Danmark, og du kan leve af dem, som arbejder heroppe og høster det grønne guld” [sagde Engwald til informan- tens far]”. 16 Fortællerens far lod sig lokke, og omkring 1926, rejser familien så fra Buenos Aires op til Eldorado: ”Så kom vi op her, og så så vi, at 70 procent eller mere, 80 procent, var døde ud af det, som var plantet, og nu havde de sat alle deres penge ind i det, så mor sagde: ”ja, her må vi blive”. Så de købte en lille lote, med et hus og to køer og en hund, fordi de kendte jo ikke til at arbejde (her). De havde ikke spor anelse om, hvordan det skulle være” Det har ikke været muligt at finde frem til det præcise antal danskere, der bosatte sig i Eldorado, men en af DANSKE STEMMERs informanter mener, at der var tale om ca. 30 danske familier. Af den svenske lingvist Flodell (2012: 168) får vi at vide, at den danske klub ’Haabet’ havde 100 medlemmer, da den var på sit højeste, hvilket må have været i årtierne efter den blev grundlagt i 1922. At den danske koloni i Eldorado aldrig blev større, kan blandt andet skyldes, at Engwald ikke ville have hvilken som helst type dan- sker til kolonien. Han ville kun have danskere, der i forvejen befandt sig i Argentina. Schwelm havde gerne set, at der også kom nye danske emigranter direkte fra Danmark til kolonien, men det satte Engwald en stopper for. Han var af den overbevisning, at kun de danskere, der havde været bosat i Argentina i længere tid og var vant til hårdt arbejde, ville kunne tåle de hårde klimatiske vilkår i Misiones’ tætte jungle. Da der ikke kom flere danskere fra andre områder i Argentina, blev der sat gang i hvervekampagner andre steder i og udenfor Argentina. Hvervekampagnerne var især henvendt til tyske immigranter (Engwald 1938: 95), og inden for en kort periode blev den danske koloni overhalet i antal af andre nationaliteter, med den tyske som den altdominerende (Johansen 2009: 130). Og det i et så stort omfang, at man den dag i dag stadig kan høre tysk på gaden i Eldorado. Det danske sprog og danskheden i Eldorados tidlige historie Ligesom i Danskertrekanten var de danske kolonister i Eldorado også i kontakt med andre sprog, især spansk og tysk. Johansen nævner dog i sin beretning, at man sjældent hørte et perfekt spansk i junglen, da der var så mange nationaliteter. Derfor var han meget impo- neret, da familien på et tidspunkt fik en radio: ”Praktisk Betydning fik Radioen for os (…) og desuden som Sproglærer, da der her i Skovene er sjældent at høre Sproget [dvs. spansk] talt rent og tydeligt” (Johansen 1934: 136, 211). Johansen fortæller videre, hvor- for dem, der ikke var opvokset i Argentina, aldrig rigtig fik det spanske sprog og den 17 argentinske kultur helt ind under huden: ”meget faa Mennesker, som rejser ud i moden Alder, naar at beherske et saa fremmede Sprog som det Spanske fuldkomment nok til dybere Indtrængen” (Johansen 1934: 209). Af DANSKE STEMMERs interview fremgår det, at ægteskaberne allerede var blandet i den generation, der går forud for informanterne, dvs. højst sandsynligt fra den første genera- tion, der opvoksede i Eldorado. De blandede ægteskaber, som vi hører om, involverede dog udelukkende danskere og tyskere. I nogle af de tilfælde har der været to sprog i hjem- met. En informant fortæller: ”Det var ikke så let, for de [dvs. forældrene] kunne ikke spansk. Så måtte jeg tale tysk med min mor og dansk med min far”. Informanten fortæller også, at hendes far talte dansk til moren, som så svarede ham på tysk. Et brødrepar for- tæller at forældrene talte dansk sammen, selvom moren var barn af et dansk-tysk ægte- skab. Dansk har altså, sammen med tysk, været dominerende i hjemmene og i informan- ternes første leveår, men på forskellige måder. En kvindelig informant fortæller om sprog- brugen hjemme: ”Ja, ja, vi talte dansk, og når vi kom sammen med de danske, var det alt sammen dansk”. Men fra en anden hører vi at det danske sprog ”havde jeg svært ved, jeg talte tysk, fordi mine forældre de kunne godt tysk, og vi kom sammen med mange tyskere, så tysk det har jeg kunnet, og i skolen havde vi en tysklærer” Det er gennemgående af beretningerne i DANSKE STEMMERs interview at spansk først kom på banen omkring skolestart: ”men så var det, at man skulle gå i skole, og der lærte man selvfølgelig spansk”, som den ene af brødreparret fortæller. Den sproglige omvæltning må have været stor for børnene i Eldorado, som den var for børnene i Danskertrekanten. Men når først det ældste barn var startet i skolen, tyder det på at indlæringen af det nye sprog, spansk, var mere glidende for de yngre børn. Flere informanter fortæller, at da den ældste kom i en spansktalende skole, begyndte han også at bruge det spanske sprog hjemme. Således gav den ældste af brødrene det spanske sprog videre til sine yngre søskende, hvorfor de yngre søskende var noget yngre, da de begyndte at lære spansk. Selvom dansk har været et dominerende sprog i hjemmene i koloniens tidlige historie, er der dog ikke nogen indikationer på, at det har haft høj prestige, sådan som det var tilfældet i Danskertrekanten. Dette skyldes muligvis, at den danske koloni i Eldorado 18 var lille, og derfor har været nødt til at blande sig med indbyggere med andre nationale baggrunde. Alligevel nævner alle informanterne, at de har talt dansk hjemme, og der er ikke nogen tvivl om, at det danske sprog må have spillet en stor rolle i deres liv, siden de stadig behersker sproget den dag i dag. En væsentlig faktor for, at det danske sprog blev bevaret i hjemmene, kan, som vi så ovenfor findes hos Johansens: ”meget faa Mennesker, som rejser ud i en moden Alder, naar at beherske et saa fremmed Sprog som det Spanske fuldkomment nok til dybere Indtrængen” (1934: 209). Det er derfor rimeligt at antage, at informanternes bedsteforældre aldrig har lært rigtigt spansk, og derfor har der været talt dansk i hjemmene. For at få et præcist svar på hvilken status det danske sprog har haft udenfor hjemmene i kolonien i Eldorado, og hvordan det kan være, at det er blevet bevaret i flere generationer, vil det være nødvendigt at stille dette spørgsmål direkte til informan- terne. Det danske sprog har altså ikke virket til at have haft en særlig høj prestige i den danske koloni, men forholdet til de andre danskere har alligevel været af en særlig karak- ter. Dette ses i de to nedenstående citater, hvor Johansen beskriver livet i den tidlige ko- loni, og om forholdet mellem danskerne og de andre nationaliteter: ”Men dette, at næsten ingen flere nye Ansigter viste sig, skabte blot en endnu mere levende Følelse af Samhørighed blandt os, som var bundet til Kolonien. Vor beskedne, nationale Forening, der stiftedes, mens Kolonien endnu spirede, og vi svulmede af meningsløse Haab om et helt lille Danmark i Skoven, voksede i disse Aar støt og blev Institution. (…) Det lille Medlemsbidrag bunkede sig sammen i Kassen og blev ved en fælles Kraftanstrengelse til et smukt Forsamlingshus om- givet af en Yerbaplantning, som skulde bestride Omkostningerne ved Bogsam- ling, Foredrag og lignende. Her holdtes nu vores Fester og Baller og Dilettantko- medier og hjemmebagte Foredrag i hyggeligt, kammeratligt Samvær.” (Johan- sen 1934: 196-200) Det forsamlingshus, som Johansen her nævner, er ’Haabet’. Citatet understreger igen, at det faktum, at gruppen ikke har været stor, har rystet dem sammen. Dette bekræftes yder- ligere i et citat fra Johansen (1934), hvor han sammenligner det følelsesmæssige klima i kolonien, der finder sted henholdsvis ved et besøg fra Danmark og ved sammenkomster, der involverede alle beboere, på kryds og tværs af nationaliteter i Eldorado: 19 ”Hver eneste Sjæl, som forstod Dansk, mødte op til Foredragene, der var gode og fængende, men det var egentlig ikke det, som betød mest, Manden hilste fra Danmark og rejste hjem med friske Indtryk af os selv og vor Færd (…) for os Dan- ske mindre betydningsfuld, var den Form for Fest, der udfoldedes i Parken ved Floden, naar Kolonisterne indbødes af Koloniens Grundlægger paa Republikens store Mindedage for Grundlov og Uafhængighed. Da samledes Indbyggerne af alle de forskellige Nationaliteter. (…) Saa broget et folkeliv, saa indfiltret et Sprogforvirring.” (Johansen 1934: 196-200) Den udprægede samhørighed mellem danskerne til trods, virker det dog ikke til at det var ildeset at gifte sig udenfor den danske koloni. Vi har allerede hørt om blandede dansk- tyske ægteskaber, og Johansen bidrager selv: ”Mange Tusind Hjem af fremmed Nationalitet var nu grundet uden om den før- ste lille Koloni, hvor Danskerne stadig holdt godt sammen. En og anden af de unge giftede sig med danske eller tyske Piger og øgede saaledes de første faa Familiers Antal.” (Johansen 1934: 198) Der er ikke noget i DANSKE STEMMERs interview der tyder på, at det i Eldorado har været ildeset at gifte sig med andre nationaliteter, heller ikke latinske eller argentinske, modsat i Danskertrekantens tidligste historie, om end de ægteskaber, vi især hører om, har været mellem danskere og tysktalende. Om en sådan umiddelbar eller naturlig accept af gifter- mål udenfor den danske kreds har været udbredt og problemfrit tolereret, må efterføl- gende studier afklare. Det fremgår dog heller ikke nogen steder, at folk udenfor dansker- kolonien ikke var velkomne til diverse fester, sådan som det var tilfældet i Danskertre- kanten – tværtimod: ”De [alle nationaliteter i Eldorado] var som en stor familie – de var alle sammen i samme båd” siger en af DANSKE STEMMERs informanter fra Eldorado, og alle blev inviteret med til sammenkomster. Samtidig virker det dog ikke til, at der har været mange argentinere til stede, da de fleste nationaliteter, der bliver nævnt er tyskere, schweizere, polakker og svenskere. Læg hertil Johansens iagttagelse, at det sjældent var et ”rigtig spansk” man hørte i junglen. For at finde ud af om dette har spillet en rolle i forhold til det mere åbne miljø, vil det igen være nødvendigt at spørge mere direkte ind 20 til det – både i Eldorado og i Danskertrekanten, for derefter at kunne lave en sammenlig- ning. Er det muligt, at der er nogle nationaliteter, der har været mere velkomne i dansker- kolonierne end andre? Danskargentinerne i Eldorado fik også dansk litteratur hjemmefra Danmark, og der blev oprettet et dansk bibliotek (Coorporativo 2012). Men løbende begyndte de også at læse argentinske aviser og tysk litteratur: ”Man kunde holde en dansk Avis og gennem enkelte af de nye Bøger, efter fattig Evne, følge dem derhjemme i Danmark, der dyrkede vores Sprog som Kunst. Ar- gentinske og Spanske Blade og Bøger begyndte ogsaa at glide ned, tyske med, for nu blev det store Flertal af Kolonisterne Tyskere, og mange af dem ansaa det for overflødigt at lære deres nye Hjemlandssprog.” (Johansen 1934: 185-186) Modsat Danskertrekanten havde den danske koloni i Eldorado ikke et tæt tilhørsforhold til en dansk menighed, og der har aldrig været en dansk kirke og en fast præst. I stedet blev der etableret en klub, og der blev sparet sammen til og i 1922 bygget et forsamlings- hus, ’Haabet’ (Tjell 2009), der i årene fremefter var centrum for sociale arrangementer, julesammenkomster og folkedans. Man har dog holdt fast i den lutheranske tro, og man har ifølge DANSKE STEMMERs informanter kunnet gå til gudstjeneste i en tysk kirke. Og så har man haft besøg af danske præster fra Danskertrekanten og Buenos Aires, og så- danne besøg har ifølge Johansen været et tilløbsstykke, og samtidig har de fungeret som en måde at styrke sammenholdet på blandt danskerne: ”Alle mødte, hver eneste Sjæl, selv om de fleste vel ikke havde skænket hverken Præst eller Kirke mange Tanker i Aarene, der var gaaet, og meget faa havde savnet dem. Der havde simpelthen ikke været Tid til det. (…) Der var jo naturligvis de Daabsbørn, de havde samlet sammen, som Konerne gerne vilde have meldt ind i Kirken. Ikke just fordi man troede, de smaa kulde lide for, om de ikke blev døbt, men naar det nu var muligt at skaffe Præsten hertil, hvorfor saa sætte Vorherre i Forlegenhed? (…) De gifte Kvinder (…) havde vel den egentlige Skyld i, at Kirken i Dag holdt sit Indtog i Skoven – som de var Skyld i saa meget andet til Gavn for Sammenhold og Gildesglæde.” (Johansen 2009: 115-117) 21 Skolegang i den danske koloni i Eldorado I begyndelsen af Eldoradokoloniens historie har der været en form for dansk skolegang: ”De opvoksede Børn samledes et Par Aar til dansk Skolegang to Gange om Ugen hos en af Ungkarlene, som var lidt mere end almindeligt studeret.” (Johansen 1934: 198). Vi hører ikke fra Johansen om, hvad der senere sker med børnenes undervisning. Men fra DANSKE STEMMERs informanter får vi mere at vide: ”Jeg lavede i Buenos Aires secondarskolen, 5 år, fordi her i Misiones var der kun én sekundær skole, det var i Posadas, og den tilhørte den katolske kirke, og min søster hun var allerede i en katolsk skole i Posadas, og min far sagde, ”Jeg vil ikke have, at min søn også går til en katolsk skole”, så måtte han sende mig til Buenos Aires, til vores kirke har en internat, hvor vi kunne bor, og så lavede jeg 5 år der” Citatet vidner om, at der har været en vis afstandtagen fra i hvert fald de katolske institu- tioner. Hvad grunden var til dette, bliver desværre ikke uddybet. Der blev aldrig bygget en dansk skole i Eldorado, men der har i korte perioder været danske skolelærere på besøg for at lære børnene at læse og skrive, også i informanternes generation, fortæller infor- manterne. Og så erfarer vi fra DANSKE STEMMERs interview at det på et tidspunkt blev normalt at sende sine børn på skolen i Cascallares i Danskertrekanten, men de interview- ede, som er født i 1930-1940’erne, er den sidste generation, der har været af sted. Angi- veligt har pengene til at sende børnene af sted været for små. Eller der har været en tidli- gere erkendelse af, at den særlige danske bevidsthed, som børnene ville få styrket i Ca- scallares, ikke ville komme dem til gavn i immigrantsamfundet i Eldorado, hvor det dan- ske spillede en stadig mindre rolle. Opsamling De børn, der voksede op i begyndelsen af Eldorados danske historie (født mellem 1921 og 1944), talte dansk i hjemmene og ved danske sammenkomster, ligesom danskerne gjorde det syd for Buenos Aires. I begge kolonier havde børnene generelt svært ved at tale spansk, da de startede i argentinsk skole, men det spanske sprog vandt indpas i dansk- argentinernes hjem, efter børnene startede i argentinsk skole. Men udover kontakten med spansk har flere af DANSKE STEMMERs informanter i Eldorado også fortalt, at der har været tæt kontakt med især tysk. Allerede i Eldorados tidlige historie har der været blandede 22 ægteskaber, især dansk-tyske, og der er på intet tidspunkt blevet givet udtryk for, at grup- pen har isoleret sig fra det omkringliggende samfund, selvom den har haft egne sammen- komster. Måske har det spillet en rolle, at det omkringliggende samfund især har bestået af tyskere, schweizere, polakker og svenskere, dvs. andre indvandrergrupper og ikke-ind- fødte argentinere end sydpå. Fra begyndelsen har den danske koloni i Eldorado haft kon- takt med andre danske samfund i Argentina og med danskere fra Danmark. Det danske sprog og danske kultur i Argentina i dag De danske kirker i Tandil, Tres Arroyos og Necochea står stadig den dag i dag og vidner om en dansk fortid syd for Argentinas hovedstad, og om en samtid, hvor efterkommere af danskere stadig har et tilhørsforhold til en protestantisk kirke. På samme måde som kirkerne symboliserer, at her er dansksindede, står også flere danske skolebygninger til- bage og vidner om en dansk historie. En af bygninger fungerer stadig som skole, ’Colegio Argentino Danés Alta Mira’, men ud over dens navn, er der ikke længere meget dansk over den, og alt undervisning foregår i dag på spansk. De danske efterkommere mødes også stadig i de danske klubber, selvom sprogbrugen nu er domineret af spansk. Det er denne situation, som vi i de følgende afsnit vil dykke ned i – mere end 100 år efter, at det første spadestik blev taget til en dansk koloni i Argentina. Undersø- gelsen er hovedsageligt bygget op på beretninger fra DANSKE STEMMERs informanter, sup- pleret med nyere fortællinger fra andre kilder. Tilsammen giver disser kilder et nutidigt billede af de danske kolonier i Danskertrekanten. I dette afsnit vil vi se nærmere på, hvilke forhold de argentinske efterkommere af danskere har til det danske sprog, Danmark og danskhed. Vi vil se nærmere på, hvem der stadig taler dansk, om det stadig bruges aktivt, og i hvilket omfang, det bliver givet videre til nye generationer. Derudover vil vi ser nærmere på, om danske traditioner ved- ligeholdes, hvor jeg vil være opmærksom på, om disse traditioner er forbundet med landet Danmark, eller om de er mere forbundet til et slags symbolsk Danmark i Argentina – altså til den historie, som deres forfædre etablerede i Argentina tilbage i slutningen af 1800- tallet og i starten af 1900-tallet. 23 Dansk sprog og kultur i Danskertrekanten At det danske sprog i Argentina er ved at synge på sidste vers, er de fleste efterkommere af danskere i Argentina enige om. Som en af DANSKE STEMMERs informanter forklarer det ”Du skal tænke på, at der er gået 50-60 år siden – det er anderledes nu”. En anden infor- mant uddyber: ”Jeg har en datter. Hun taler ikke dansk – ikke et spor, men det kunne jo heller ikke blive ved med at gå sådan” – altså med at holde fast i det danske sprog. Infor- manterne forklarer videre, at deres børn begyndte at tage indtil storbyerne for at studere, hvilket man ikke havde mulighed for i deres generation. Det betyder, at deres børns ge- neration ikke på samme måde har været isoleret i landområderne. Derimod har de været i større kontakt med det spanske sprog og dermed også med personer udenfor kolonien. Det er velkendt, at jo mere kontakt et minoritetssprog har med et dominerende sprog, jo mere sandsynligt er det, at minoritetssprogets status bliver svagere. Nogle informanter fortæller, at de har forsøgt at lære deres børn nogle danske ord, men mere er det ikke blevet til. De mere og mere almindelige blandede ægteskaber med udelukkende spansk- talende har uden tvivl været med til at give dødsstødet til det danske sprog. Vi så jo i den historiske gennemgang, at det på et tidspunkt har været ildeset at gifte sig uden for kolo- nierne og en anden informant, født 1921 i Necochea, fortæller at han selv oplevede noget lignende. I 1961 giftede han sig med en argentiner: ”Og det var ikke nemt for mig at gifte mig med hende, jeg er protestant og hun er katolik og halvtreds år tilbage var det meget dansk. Ja, danskerne de ville ikke have noget med det at gøre” Informanten fortæller videre, at hans mor også var imod det, men at hun måtte acceptere det til sidst. Hans bror giftede sig også med en argentiner af italiensk afstamning. Brød- rene havde ikke fået ideen fra fremmede, da deres far, der var halvt svensk og halvt dansk, altid havde sagt, at det var vigtigt at ”skifte blodet”. Samtidig fortæller informanten, at faren ikke havde brudt sig meget om Danmark eller det lukkede danskersamfund i Ar- gentina til trods for, at han var dansk gift. I et af DANSKE STEMMERs interview bliver der spurgt ind til, hvorfor informanten har bevaret det danske sprog, hvortil hun svarer ”fordi at jeg kan huske det”. Hertil tilføjer hendes mand ”og din søster kan også tale dansk”, hvorpå hun uddyber ”det går også på 24 dansk mange gange [med søsteren], det går sådan lidt frem og tilbage”. Hun bruger så- ledes stadig det danske sprog aktivt, når hun taler med sin søster, dog blandet med spansk. Hendes mand taler også dansk, men det fremgår ikke af interviewet, om de taler dansk indbyrdes. Hun fortæller desuden, at hun har brugt sproget på rejser inden for det spansk- talende Sydamerika, for så var der ingen, der kunne forstå, hvad hun sagde. Det virker dog ikke til, at hun har en særlig veneration for eller dybe følelser involveret i bevarelsen af det danske sprog, der, erfarer vi, kun bliver brugt i ny og næ og under særlige omstæn- digheder. Et ældre ægtepar fra Danskertrekanten fortæller om, hvordan de har brugt og stadig bruger det danske sprog med deres børn: ”De har talt derhjemme til os. De kunne kun dansk da de skulle i skole. Ham der er i Danmark nu, han ville slet ikke tale spansk, selvom han havde en lærer, der kom og prøvede. Da de først havde lært spansk, så ville de ikke tale dansk. Men de kan dansk” Samme ægtepar er også blevet belært af deres søn, at det danske, de taler, er blandet med spansk. Sønnen har siden 1997 boet fast i Danmark, og ægteparret fortæller: ”Han sagde det dansk de havde lært hjemme var ikke ordentlig dansk, de havde blandet det lidt sam- men med spansk-danske-ord”. De forklarer videre, at da de boede ude på landet, var deres børn langt væk fra deres venner, så de første år har de ikke haft så meget kontakt til det spanske sprog: ”Problemet var, at alle deres venner kunne spansk, men de boede ude på landet, så de havde ikke gode muligheder for at mødes så meget med dem. De fik først lært rigtig spansk, da de kom i skole. Men ved spisebordet skulle der kun tales dansk. Så sagde de ikke noget” Dette minder meget om det billede, vi også har set tegnet fra andre informanter. Ægte- parret fortæller endvidere, at de i dag stadig taler dansk til deres nu voksne børn, men at de nogle gange blander med spansk. Deres børn svarer dog altid på spansk, og den ældste af dem er den, der taler mindst dansk. Dette forklarer de med, at han blev gift med en spansktalende og ikke har haft mulighed for at tale med dem hver dag. De understreger dog, at han forstår alt på dansk. Selvom det altså er lykkedes ægteparret delvis at føre det 25 danske sprog videre til deres børn, er de enige om, at det danske sprog er på vej væk i Argentina: ”alle dem der taler dansk er lidt halvgamle, og deres børn vil heller ikke rigtig lære dansk”. Også i kirkerne er det danske på vej væk, fortæller de: ”Det bliver svært efterhånden. Vi kan se nu, at præsten her han holder op med at være præst, hvad er der ved at få en dansk præst? For hvor mange kan forstå ham, for der er ikke mange, der kan dansk” Der er altså ingen tvivl om, at mange af den danske kirkes medlemmer ikke længere kan dansk, hvad der langt hen ad vejen kan overføres til et mere generelt billede på det danske samfund, der er tilbage i Argentina den dag i dag. Informanten giver også et andet bud på, hvorfor han mener, at det danske sprog er på vej væk i Argentina: ”Så er det ikke længere som i gamle dage, hvor danskerne immigrerede til Ar- gentina, fordi Danmark var et lille fattigt land. Leveforholdene i Danmark har forandret sig fra da hans oldeforældre udvandret. Nu er det Argentina, der er fattigt” Dette er også et aspekt som er en væsentlig del af Edwards (1992: 50) typologi, som han kalder ”Nature of in- and out-migration”. Der kommer ikke flere nye dansktalende til kolonierne, og oven i købet er dem, der kom, begyndt at flytte fra landet og ind til stor- byerne. Hans hustru gør os opmærksom på et andet interessant aspekt i forhold til at for- stå, hvorfor dansk og danskhed har overlevet så mange år og generationer i Argentina: ”Der er ikke noget patriotisme. Argentina er jo ikke andet end fyldt med immi- granter. Dengang, når jeg tænker tilbage, vi lærte alt, hvad der var dansk, det var super – min far det var dansk, min far han sørgede for, at vi alle sammen kom til Danmark – han ville have, at vi skulle se hans land” Nogle mennesker har måske ikke haft et stærkt tilhørsforhold til immigrantlandet Argen- tina, og har måske netop derfor haft et større behov for at holde fast i egne rødder. Disse rødder spiller ifølge Jarnum (2006) stadig en stor rolle i argentinernes identitetsopfattelse. Hun nævner blandet andet: ”Bevidstheden om disse immigrantrødder er stadig så stor at mange argentinere endnu i dag finder det svært at definere en fælles kultur” (2006: 48). Informanten fra tidligere er dog ikke i tvivl om, at også er argentinsk: 26 ”Da jeg kom til Danmark som ung, der blev jeg klar over, at jeg var argentiner, så blev jeg patriot kan man sige. Fordi når jeg så et argentinsk flag – så blev jeg klar over at jeg ikke var dansker. Jeg var 23 – derfor sagde jeg til drengene – I skal rejse ud – for så bliver det en helt anden måde at se tingene på” En anden af DANSKE STEMMERs kvindelige informanter, født i 1953 i Necochea, fortæller: ”Mit danske det er ikke helt så godt. Det er fordi, jeg slet ikke praktiserer det, og selvom du synes, at jeg taler pænt dansk, så er det bare fordi, at jeg har boet i Danmark i min barndom. Jeg har gået i skole i Danmark. Da jeg var 7 år – jeg er den ældste af tre – min far var dansker og min mor var hollænder, så det var en dejlig blanding” Da der bliver spurgt ind til, om hendes børn er interesseret i Danmark, eller om de føler et særligt tilhørsforhold til Danmark, fortæller hun: ”Jeg har sådan prøvet på at være neutral i den hensigt. Jeg har ikke prøvet på at skubbe dem til noget som helst, og den dag i dag har jeg af mine tre børn, to der bor udenlands. Der er en der bor i Spanien, og den anden, for øjeblikket er hun i Tyrkiet, men hun har været i Australien, Peru y Colombia” Selvom flere af DANSKE STEMMERs informanter formentlig føler sig argentinske, så har de ikke en klar fælles definition på, hvad man er, når man er efterkommer af danskere i Argentina. Et andet projekt, der viser et mere nutidigt billede af danskhed i Argentina, er den argentinske dokumentarfilm ’Lille Danmark’ (CineFerico SEO, 2014). Filmen er op- taget i Danskertrekanten, og den foregår på spansk med danske undertekster. Dens kon- klusion lyder: ”Som årene gik, har det Lille Danmark ændret sit udseende. En dansk baggrund banker endnu i de danske efterkommeres hjerter, men det etniske skel, der eks- kluderer dem fra argentinsk kultur har ændret sig og givet plads til skabelsen formering af en reel ’dansk argentinsk’ identitet” Dette understøttes af flere af de danske efterkommere, der deltager i dokumentaren. En ældre kvinde udtaler: 27 ”Selvfølgelig håber jeg det ikke går tabt. Det er derfor vi gør alt muligt for at vedligeholde Den Danske Club, som den danske klub Dannevirke, som den Dan- ske kirke, som de Otte Dage i Cascallares, som menighederne, som Sommerfe- sten… Jeg tænker at de aldrig vil forlade Argentina, som altid vil bevares. Selv om man ikke bevarer sproget, måske, skal vi sige, at sproget faldet bort, traditi- onerne vil ikke gå tabt de vil finde rod i landet her. Det er min mening og mit ønske” En yngre kvindelig deltager tilføjer: ”Vi siger som i vores gruppe, at denne skole skal forblive som et bidrag fra dan- skerne her til Argentina. Man kan ikke slutte det danske. Vi havde en præstefrue, og hun sagde altid at i det argentinske flag vil der altid forblive en lille rød tråd fra Dannebrog. Denne blanding er det som skal forblive her, for vores samfund, for vores land. Drømmen er at dette fortsat kan fungere godt” En ældre kvinde nuancerer ved at påpege, at hun er argentiner, ikke dansker: ”Jeg holder af mit Argentina! Når jeg rejser til Spanien, hvor jeg har min datter og børnebørn, jeg er henrykt over at komme tilbage. Er glad for at være tilbage i mit land. Jeg bytter ikke med Danmark” Modsat denne deltager er der en ældre mandlig deltager, som er i tvivl om, hvad han og de andre efterkommere er: ”Jeg tror, at vi er argentinere”, mens en anden ældre mandlig deltager slutter dokumentaren med følgende: ”Jeg siger, at jeg er et menneske, som har rødder to steder”. Således viser dokumentaren en gruppe af danske efterkommere i Ar- gentina, der er bevidste om deres rødder, og som heller ikke er i tvivl om at de befinder sig mellem to kulturer. På trods af betoningen af at man er argentiner, viser flere af del- tagerne i både dokumentarfilmen og i DANSKE STEMMERs interview alligevel et ønske om at bevare de danske traditioner i Argentina, også selvom sproget måtte forsvinde. Der er en stor del af efterkommerne af danskere i Argentina, der har et godt kendskab til deres rødder og deres familiehistorie. Men vi skal dog huske, at den gruppe, som DANSKE STEM- MER har talt med, er udvalgt fordi, de alle stadig kan tale dansk. Og ligesom deltagerne fra dokumentaren har de indvilliget i at deltage i et projekt, hvor omdrejningspunktet har 28 med Danmark og dansk at gøre. Derfor er det ikke er overraskende, at vi får et billede af danskargentinere, der er fuldt ud opmærksomme på deres rødder. Noget af det, vi mangler viden om, er, hvad der forbindes med danskhed blandt de efterkommere af danskere, der ikke længere dyrker det danske sprog, eller tager aktivt del i danskersamfundets traditioner. Ligesådan for generationen efter størsteparten af DANSKE STEMMERs informanter, der med en gennemsnitsalder på 72 år, repræsenterer den ældste generation af nulevende danske efterkommere. Hvor godt kender disse grupper til deres rødder? Er de interesseret i deres rødder? Kender de familiehistorien? Som allerede nævnt er de danske menigheder stadig aktive, men ligesom det er svært at få det danske sprog videregivet til den unge generation, er det også svært at få denne generation med i kirken. Her formuleret af en af DANSKE STEMMERs informanter: "Dem, der bliver det [involveret i menigheden], er de ældre, for de unge de vil ikke, men alligevel så skal de have deres børn døbt, men så kommer de ikke mere bagefter" Mange informanter fortæller, at de unge heller ikke er interesserede i at betale for at holde det hele i gang: ”Det var også det, der skete med skolen - desværre. Og det sker med klubberne”. Tre informanter fortæller, at de stadig er aktive i det danske klubliv i Tres Arroyos, hvor der er kortaftener og kvindeklubber. Her mødes kvinderne hver den første torsdag i måneden. Mændene mødes til at spille det spanske kortspil truco. Derudover har de fælles kortspilsaftener for begge køn hver anden torsdag hver måned i den danske klub, hvor de blandt andet spiller Hjerterfri. De danske juletraditioner bliver også stadig fulgt, dog er der mange steder lavet om på madtraditionerne, der før i tiden bestod af and eller gås, ris à la mande, kartofler, sovs og rødkål. De tre ovennævnte informanter fortæller, at de sidste jul slet ikke tændte lyset på træet, fordi det var for varmt. Der er stadig juletræ, gaver, nisser og risalamande med mandelgaver. Andre traditioner holdes i hævd, når danskargentinerne mødes fx til sommerfest i ’Club Dannevirke’ i Lumb lidt nord for Necochea, til sammenkomster i den danske kirke og til det årlige højskoleopholdstræf, ’Ocho Dias’ (’De otte dage’). Flere af de danske klubber har også Facebooksider, hvor forskellige traditionelle arrangementer annonceres, fx ’Club Danés Necochea’. 29 Forholdet til Danmark blandt de andre danske efterkommere Ud fra DANSKE STEMMERs interview får man et meget blandet indtryk af informanternes forhold til Danmark – om de har været i Danmark, om de har familiemedlemmer i Dan- mark osv. En informant fortæller eksempelvis med et smil på læben, at hun nok heller aldrig kommer det: ”Jeg har aldrig været i Danmark – og jeg kommer det nok ikke – jeg vil ikke have noget med det at gøre”. Hun lægger således afstand til Danmark, og viser på ingen måde lyst eller behov for at lære Danmark at kende. En anden informant har der- imod været i Danmark fire gange. Hun var sammen med flere danskargentinere, og de besøgte bl.a. familiemedlemmer og familiegravsteder, men også turistattraktioner som Legoland og Skagen. Men det er mange informanters opfattelse, at der er mange danske efterkommere, der ikke har været i Danmark, og at en del helt har lagt Danmark bag sig: ”Der er mange, der ikke har været der. Jeg har en svoger, han kom herover, da han var fem år – han kom aldrig tilbage – han ville ikke, han ville aldrig rejse tilbage" Andre udnytter til gengæld tilhørsforholdet til Danmark. En informant forklarer således, at der i 2011 kom nye danske regler, som gør at danskargentinere har nemmere ved at søge om arbejds- og opholdstilladelse i Danmark. Dette mulighed udnyttes af flere dansk- argentinere, der nu bor i Danmark med arbejds- og opholdstilladelse, og enkelte forsøger også at opnå dansk statsborgerskab. Dette skal nok også ses i lyset af, at der rent økono- misk er flere muligheder i Danmark i dag, end der er i Argentina – som nogle informanter nævner, er det Argentina, der i dag er et fattigt land, mens Danmark er et rigt land. Selvom kolonien i dag ikke er lukket som i den tidlige kolonihistorie, får man alligevel det indtryk, at de danske efterkommere kender eller kender til hinanden indbyr- des, og at der altså stadig eksisterer et tæt dansk netværk i Argentina i de områder, hvor de danske kolonier engang blomstrede. Informanterne kan nævne mange danske familier, der bor omkring dem, og der er stadig kontaktled mellem kolonierne i Danskertrekanten og i Eldorado. Opsamling Det danske sprog bruges stadigvæk i Danskertrekanten, men det er spansk, der er det dominerende sprog, førstesproget. Flere fra den ældre generation udtrykker et ønske om og en tro på, at de danske traditioner bliver ved med at eksistere i Argentina, også selvom 30 det danske sprog forsvinder. Det er dog stadig ikke belyst, hvad den yngre generation tænker, og om ønsket om bevarelse af de danske traditioner vil blive holdt, eller om tra- ditionerne langsomt vil forsvinde, ligesom det er tilfældet med sproget. Eldorado i dag – en europæisk smeltedigel Ligesom det er tilfældet i Danskertrekanten, er der også stadig danske vartegn at finde i Eldorado. Eksempelvis så har en efterkommer af en dansk familie købt Engwalds gamle hus og kaldt det ’Danskerhus’, ’Casa Danés’. Det gamle forsamlingshus ’Haabet’ og by- ens museum vidner også om en historie med danske rødder, ligesom det er tilfældet med kirkegården med de mange danske efternavne. Det danske sprog og danskhed i Eldorado i dag På samme måde som i forrige afsnit vil vi nu dykke ned i den situation som de danske efterkommere i Eldorado lever i, næsten 100 år efter de første nybyggere satte fod i den vilde urskov. Som i forrige afsnit vil dette hovedsageligt komme til at bygge på beretnin- ger fra DANSKE STEMMERs informanter. De fleste af DANSKE STEMMERs informanter i Eldorado er født og opvokset der, og er således pionerernes børnebørn. Dog er der en enkelt, der er født i Buenos Aires i 1921, og som kom til Eldorado som ganske lille sammen med sine forældre. Den danske gruppe har ligesom generationerne før dem blandet sig med andre nationaliteter, især ty- skere, schweizere og svenskere. Netop dette faktum har haft en betydning for, at det dan- ske sprog ikke er blevet givet videre til de nye generationer, mener flere af informanterne: ”Når man bliver gift med andre familier, så kommer man ind i noget andet, ikke sandt, så forsvinder det”. Da der spørges ind til om informanterne også selv synes, det er en skam, at det danske sprog forsvinder, virker de alle til at være enige: ”Ja, det er en skam”. Selv informanten, der er født i Buenos Aires i 1921 (dvs. tidligere end de øvrige interviewede) fortæller om de udfordringer, der var forbundet med at lære hendes børn dansk: ”Ja vi talte dansk. Men da de var alle sammen små, så havde vi en pige som havde arbejdet med fru Bylling og lært dansk, så til de var 5 år, så kunne de tale dansk, men da de begyndte i skole – særligt G. – han ville ikke tale – han ville tale spansk, så det blev efterhånden at vi talte spansk, og nu til dags taler vi spansk sammen” 31 Informantens mand var svensker, og de blev gift i 1940. To af hendes børn bor i Sverige, det tredje i Gibraltar, og det danske sprog er således heller ikke blevet givet videre i denne familie. En anden informant bekræfter, at de blandede ægteskaber har været med til, at det danske sprog ikke fortsætter i de nye generationer: ”Det triste er, at alle de børn er blevet gift med andre nationaliteter. Så efterkommerne de forstår ikke at snakke dansk”. Samme denne informant gør opmærksom på en anden faktor, der har medvirket til, at det danske sprog ikke er gået videre i de nye generationer: ”For jeg begyndte jo at snakke dansk med min første søn, og til fem år så snak- kede vi dansk hjemme, så begyndte han med skolen, og så begyndte han at snakke spansk lidt mere flydende, og så skulle man finde nogle, der skulle passe på ham. Så sagde han, nu kan du lade være med at snakke mig så grimt. Han ville ikke snakke dansk mere” Og da hendes børn begyndte i skole, skiftede hun selv mere over til spansk: ”Når de begyndte skolen, den første søn. Den anden fik jeg slet ikke noget. For jeg arbejdede og så var det husets, de skulle gå i gang, så havde jeg ikke meget tid til at snakke dansk til dem, for vi skal altid have nogle der hjælper os, passer børnene og gør rent og sådan noget, og så gik det hele på spansk. Jeg ved det er min fejl, pero nu er det for sent” Og det ærgrer hende, at børnene i dag ville have ønsket, at det var anderledes: ”Det værste er, at de siger, hvorfor har du ikke blevet ved med at snakke til os [på dansk]”. Flere informanterne forklarer, at de også har svært ved at finde lejligheder til at holde det dan- ske sprog ved lige: ”Det er ligesom om tyskerne de siger, hvorfor taler I ikke tysk, fordi vi har ikke en lejlighed til at tale tysk, sådan med folk. Imellem os det spiller ingen ting. Det skal være med andre folk, ikke sandt, at man taler sprog” En af mændene forklarer desuden, at selvom både hans søster og bror taler dansk, er deres fællessprog spansk: 32 ”Det går alt på spansk, det er meget lettere for os. Det er det man vænner sig til det, selve det sociale live den driver det til. Man glemmer det, sådan lidt lang- somt. Nu giver det lige lejlighed at tale med jer på dansk, ellers gør vi det ikke. Vores problem er, vi har ikke lejlighed med at tale [dansk], for eksempel da vi var i Danmark, i begyndelsen var det sådan lidt svært for os, men så med tiden så går det. Men nu med årene her, så går det i vores glemmebog [og så] skammer man sig lidt og ikke kan tale” Mens mændene ikke har et forum, hvor de kan bruge det danske sprog, er der en mindre gruppe bestående af kvinder, der mødes ca. én gang om måneden med det formål at holde det danske sprog ved lige: ”Ja, vi samler os én gang om måneden og taler dansk”. Og det fremgår, at det er en målbevidst gruppe, der gør sig umage med at holde sproget i live, for som en af deltagerne forklarer det: ”Nu har vi den forsamling med mine kusiner, én gang om måneden eller sådan noget, til at snakke dansk. Og så morer vi os for vi skal finde den ord, som vi ikke kan huske, og så skal vi alle sammen sætte vores hoved i blød, hvordan siger man det? Og så kommer vi til at grine ad os selv. Vi kan más o menos” Desuden tilføjer informanten, at hun også taler dansk med sin bror: ”Med ham snakker jeg også dansk, han kan næsten ikke, han mangler mere, for han var jo gift med en ty- skerpige, så gik det hele på tysk”. Selv den ældre generation, dvs. pionerernes børn, er så småt gået helt over i spansk. Her fortæller informanten om de forskellige sproglige forhold, der har været igen- nem tiden og frem til i dag: ”Jo, hjemme sí, pero det er sådan, når vi bliver lidt mere store, så vil vi ikke snakke mere dansk, pero med min mor, jeg snakkede altid, og jeg blev ved endnu med mine tanter, pero de er også kommet i den alder, hvor der kommer hendes børn og barnebarn, alt sammen det går på spansk, og så lader vi dansken være til side, pero med den gruppe, som I har kendt den anden dag, der laver vi alt, hvad vi kan for at blive ved med at snakke dansk” Det danske sprog er altså også ved at ebbe ud i Eldorado. Men mens det danske sprog i Eldorado virker til at synge på sidste vers, er der et andet minoritetssprog, tysk, der virker 33 til at være mere aktivt. Dette skyldes uden tvivl at den tyske koloni er langt større end den danske, som redegjort for ovenfor, og at tilstrømningen af tyskere til Misiones fortsatte helt frem til efter 2. verdenskrig. Billedet af et levende tysk sprog tegnes af en af infor- manterne her: ”Her holder meget det tyske sprog. Vi kommer sammen med nogle venner en gang om ugen og de taler alle tysk, og det er altid et problem for mig. De siger det er svært for dem ikke at tale tysk. Det er et sprog som holder meget her i Eldorado” Hun fortæller ligesom flere af de andre, at hun holder det danske sprog ved lige ved det månedlige kvindemøde og ved at læse: ”Det er derfor vi kommer sammen. For vi vil ikke glemme det [det danske sprog], og vi læser danske bøger. Vi kommer sammen, når vi træffer os, eller hver tredje uge, så prøver vi at tale dansk, det går svært for os, for når vi ikke kan huske det, så kommer det spansk sprog imellem, og når vi træffer os på gaden, så taler vi dansk, for ikke at glemme det” En anden beretning giver indtryk af at danskerne i Eldorado har bestræbt sig på dels at holde sig informeret om forhold i Danmark, dels at holde styrke og vedligeholde læse- kompetencerne: ”Vi fik altid aviser af vores tante fra Danmark. Vi har lært at tale dansk og læse dansk. Det var Billed Badet og Hjemmet og Familie Journalen, men jeg læser også danske bøger. Jeg købte tre bøger i Danmark, og dem læste hele dansker- kolonien. Jeg kan ikke huske, hvordan den hedder, men jeg har den der” Men selvom man ikke kan det danske sprog, kan man alligevel godt være dansk af sind, sådan som en efterkommer af danske indvandrere der har købt Engwalds tidligere hus i Eldorado og døbt det ’Danskerhus’. Som det er tilfældet i Danskertrekanten, kan man også i Eldorado sagtens føle sig både argentinsk og dansk. Dette understreger Alicia Dick Engwald indledningsvist i den spanske udgave af Nina Engwalds bog ’Eldorado’: 34 ”I dag holder vores familie ligeså meget af vores rødder fra nord som af vores rødder fra syd. Vi er jungle og vi er nordisk harmoni. Vi er højtråbende latinoer med skandinaviske skikke.” (Engwald 2014)1 Meget tyder på, at de danske traditioner er ved at svinde hen, ligesom det er tilfældet med sproget. Der gives eksempler på, hvordan juletraditioner langsomt er blevet mere argen- tinske: ”Da min far og min mor levede, der lavede vi, der var alt på dansk, med danske flag og det hele, men nu ikke mere, fordi, der er mere argentiner end dansker. Børnene er født her, og børnebørnene er også født her. Vi lavede altid risengrød og sådan til dessert, men så kunne de ikke lide det, så nu køber vi is, det er jo så varmt her. Ja, det har vi juletræ. Vi laver kold mad: rullepølser, alt koldt. Men før der lavede vi asado [grillkød] og svinekød” En anden tænker tilbage på, hvordan de før i tiden holdt jul med traditioner som sange, julemand og dans om træet, men så ”langsomt, så bliver de væk”, som en af informanterne siger. Men helt væk er alle traditionerne nu ikke. Eksempelvis blev der danset folkedans i ’Haabet’ i 2012 i forbindelse med at klubben fyldte 90 år. Her var det Nordiska Dans- gruppe’, der stod for trinene (Marek 2012). Den ’Nordiska Danskgruppe’ er fra Oberá, der ligger ca. 200 km syd for Eldorado, og som er hjemsted for bl.a. efterkommere af svenske indvandrere. Forholdet til Danmark og til de andre danske efterkommere Flere af informanterne fortæller med glæde, at de på et tidspunkt har været i Danmark. Dog ikke alle: ”Vi har aldrig penge til det (…) Hvis man har penge sí (…) som vi er i dag, no, jeg har ikke (…)”. Og for nogle betyder Danmark ikke så meget. En informant fortæl- ler, at hun var i Danmark i 1992 og igen i 2005 i forbindelse med, at en tante fyldte 100 år: ”jeg var 3 dage i Danmark, det var nok til at være til festen og besøge nogle kusiner, og så hjem igen, hvad skal jeg lave i Danmark?”. 1 Original tekst “hoy la familia quiere tanto nuestras raíces del Norte como a las del Sur, somos selva y armonía nórdica, somos latinos ruidosos con costumbres escandinavas”. 35 Mange informanter fortæller, at de har mistet kontakten til deres familie i Dan- mark efter bedstemoren døde. En kvinde har mødt sine kusiner under en rejse til Dan- mark, og at de i starten holdt kontakten ved lige, men at den med tiden er blevet mindre. Dog har en af hendes kusiner været på besøg i Eldorado, og derigennem blev informanten opmærksom på forskellige hilseskikke, fx med hensyn til at give kindkys: ”I Danmark, der gør vi det ikke, og her gør vi det”. Det er interessant at bide mærke i, at hun både inddrager sig selv som dansker og argentiner: ”I Danmark, der gør vi (…) her gør vi”. Selvom der ikke bliver spurgt direkte ind til, hvem hun identificerer sig med, så identifi- cerer hun sig altså sig selv som både dansker og argentiner. Ligesom det gjorde sig gældende i Danskertrekanten, virker det også til, at de danske efterkommere i Eldorado har godt kendskab til de andre danskargentinere og fa- miliefortællingerne. Men vi ved ikke, hvor meget de ses udover de faste møder mellem kusinegruppen, men en af kvinderne fortæller, at hun er mere tæt med danskergruppen end andre grupper, og hun forklarer også hvorfor: ”Vi har den danske klub, hvor vi sam- lede os en gang om måneden, så hver gang kom der et lille fad med mellemmad. I må huske, man var meget alene her. Der var ingen ting. Og så kom de alle sammen. Det er derfor jeg kender ikke så mange folk udefra, som polakkerne, der er mange tyskere og mange polakkere og alt det – for vi har altid holdt os sammen med den danske klub. Der blev lavet pæne fester. Vi var alle gode venner, vi holdt os alle sammen, som jeg siger, vi var alle alene, det var ikke let at være her. Og sådan, år efter år, så begyndte det at være byen at vokse, og den vokser jo hver gang mere”. Opsamling Denne rapport har portrætteret de danske indvandrere og deres efterkommere som en stærk og selvbevidst indvandrergruppe, der har formået at beholde egne, kulturspecifikke træk, samtidig med at de har klaret sig godt i det nye hjemland og er blevet argentinere – om end måske stadig med en bindestreg. Det danske sprog har de opretholdt i ca. 100 år ligesom mange af de danske skikke og danske institutioner, og denne rapport viser at sammenhængskraften mellem danskargentinerne fortsat er stærk. Så selvom der ikke er noget der tyder på, at det danske sprog i Argentina vil overleve det næste generationsskifte i noget nævneværdigt omfang, så er den danske indvandring til Argentina stadig bemær- kelsesværdig historie, hvor dansk og argentinsk kultur er smeltet uadskilleligt sammen. 36 Litteratur brugt i rapporten Agertoft, P. 2005. Danskhed på pampaen 1875-1950: En undersøgelse af aktører, struk- turer og diskurser i udviklingen af en dansk-argentinsk i provinsen Buenos Aires. Aarhus: Speciale, Institut for Historie og Områdestudier, Aarhus Universitet. Bjerg, M.M. 1996. Entre Sofie y Tovelille. Una historia de los inmigrantes daneses en la Argentina (1848-1930). Buenos Aires, Argentina: Editorial Biblos. Clyne, M. 1992. Linguistic and sociolinguistic aspects of language contact, maintenance and loss. W. Fase, K. Jaspaert & S. Kroen (red.), Maintenance and Loss of Mi- nority Languages. Amsterdan: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Edwards, J. 1992. Sociopolitical aspects of language maintenance and loss. W. Fase, K. Jaspaert & S. Kroen (red.), Maintenance and Loss of Minority Languages. Am- sterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Engwald, N.R. 2014. Eldorado - 20 años en sudamerica. (Redigeret af R.W. Engwald og oversat af A.D. Engwald.) Argentina. Engwald, N.R. 1938. Eldorado. København: Hasselbach. Erdem, A. 2007. Indvandrernes paradis: danske rødder i Argentina. Odense: Geografforlaget. Flodell, G. 2012. Om immigrantsvenskan i Misiones, Argentina. Norsk Lingvistisk Tidsskrift 30. 165-182. Jarnum, K. 2006. Mellem Danmark og Argentina. København: KUB. Johansen, O. 1934. Nybygger. København: Hasselbalch. Johansen, O. 2009. Pionero (Originaltitel: Nybygger). Eldorado, Misiones, Argentina: Alicia Aerni Editora. Kjær, G. 1991. Landet bag hav, om Argentina og om danskere og deres efterkommere i Argentina. Odense: Odense Universitetsforlag. Marek. (2012). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6_IMCdesmBU. (C. d. Folkedans, Producer). Tilgået maj 2016 Markvardsen, H. (1962). Danske Skole i Argentina. I Vartovbogen (s. 137-152). Køben- havn: udg. af Kirkeligt Samfund af 1898. Tjell, D. (2009). Karen Johansen og Den Danske Klub Haabet. Tilgået april 2016, http://eldoradoargentina2009.blogspot.dk/2009/02/karen-johansen-og-haa- bet.html. 37 Andre kilder CineFerico SEO. (15. februar 2014). Tilgået maj 2016 fra https://www.you- tube.com/watch?v=nrrLppmM2nY. Colegio Alta Mira. (Udateret.). www.colegioaltamira.com.ar. Tilgået maj 2016 Coorporativo, M. (18. juni 2012). Club Argentino Danes "La Esperanza "Eldorado, Misiones, Argentina. Hentet maj 2016 fra https://www.you- tube.com/watch?v=zLRtIiR5PwI. Den Nordiska Dansgruppen. (Udateret.) https://www.facebook.com/dennordiska.dans- gruppen. Tilgået maj 2016. DSUK. (2016). Hentet maj 2016 fra Danske sømands- og udlandskirker: http://www.dsuk.dk/vores-kirker/sydamerika/.

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with the support the European Commission (project 518094-LLP-1-2011-1-GR-COMENIUS-CMP) and The University of Flensburg, Germany. This publication reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission [...] with the support of the European Commission (project 518094-LLP-1-2011-1-GR-COMENIUS-CMP) and Polish Association of Science Teachers, Poland. This publication reflects the views only of the author, and [...] with the support by the European Commission (Project 518094-LLP-1-2011-1-GR-COMENIUS-CMP) and the NKUA of Greece. This publication reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held

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der Semiotik. Stuttgart / Weimar: Metzler. - SEIDLHOFER, Barbara (2011): Understanding English as a Lingua Franca. Oxford. Oxford University Press. - TRABANT, Jürgen (2003): Mithridates im Paradies. Kleine [...] des Sprachdenkens. München: Beck. 2. Articles: - NEIS, Cordula (2011): "European Conceptions of Writing from the Renaissance to the eighteenth century". History of Linguistics 2008. Selected papers from [...] Volkmann. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. 2011: 169-186. - NEIS, Cordula (2015): "Les delires de l’orthographe – Diskussionen um die Rechtschreibung in Spanien und Frankreich in

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• Prof. Dr. Cordula Neis

EUROPA-UNIVERSITÄT FLENSBURG January 30, 2016 Alumni Workshop 2015 Addressing Resilience and Sustainability in Energy Management Table of Contents Workshop Programme .................................................................................................................................. 1 Submitted Papers6-236 ................................................................................................................................ 6 Environmental and Sustainability Issues in the Curricula for Ethiopian Teacher Education Colleges ...... 6 THE UGANDA ENERGY SECTOR – TRACING SUSTAINABILITY IN THE FACE OF A BURGEONING OIL SECTOR -A POLICY REVIEW- .................................................................................................................... 19 Developing self-sustainable solar-run community schools: Case study from Light of Hope’s digital school in Bangladesh ............................................................................................................................... 31 Scheme for Promoting Biodiesel Production in Indonesia ..................................................................... 38 Local Officials’ Concerns of Climate Change Issues in China: A Case from Jiangsu ................................ 56 Energy Management and Conservation Action Program, A Market Model to improve Energy Performance into Business and Entrepreneurship ................................................................................. 68 IMPLEMENTATION OF SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS FOR COMMUNITY RESILIENCE IN COLOMBIA. CASE STUDY: SAN VICENTE DEL CAGUÁN ........................................................................................................ 77 Social Implications of Carbon Taxes ........................................................................................................ 95 Decentralized Approach (or) Participatory Approach to Development Projects ................................. 105 ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN BUILDINGS – A CASE STUDY FOR NATURALLY VENTILATED BUILDINGS IN THE WARM-HUMID TROPICAL ZONE IN SOUTH INDIA ................................................................................ 122 Ensuring Sustainability of Decentralized Renewable Energy Systems through Creation of Rural Economic Zone (REZ) ............................................................................................................................ 135 Promoting Energy Efficiency in Nepal: Issues, Challenges and Opportunities ..................................... 147 Living Laboratory – a new approach to engineering education ........................................................... 159 Promoting Climate Adapted Housing and Energy Efficient Buildings: Chances and Challenges .......... 169 Energy Management Practice in Developing Countries: A Review of Kenya’s Policy, Regulatory and Institutional Framework ....................................................................................................................... 185 Cross Border Power Trade in South Asia: Opportunities and Challenges for Nepal ............................ 192 Energizing Sustainable Rural Livelihood through Market System Development ................................. 200 ASSESSMENT OF RENEWABLE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT TO THE SUSTAINABLE ELECTRICITY SUPPLY IN THE ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS............................................................................. 207 Developing self-sustainable solar-run community schools: Case study from Light of Hope’s digital school in Bangladesh ............................................................................................................................. 216 THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECTS OF WOOD ENERGY SYSTEMS IN BURKINA FASO ... 223 Posters of Workshop Sessions .................................................................................................................. 237 Alumni Participants ................................................................................................................................... 280 1 Workshop Programme: 21. September 2015 - 25. September 2015 Day one 21.September 2015 – Public Opening Event at University of Flensburg, EB 63 7:30 Breakfast 8:30 Bus to Campus from Sankelmark 09:15 Welcome Prof. Dr. Werner Reinhart, President of the Europa-Universität Flensburg Swetlana Krätzschmar, Stadtpräsidentin of Flensburg Dr. August Schläpfer, former EEM Director 10:00 25 years international study programmes for sustainable development at the University of Flensburg State Secretary Thomas Losse-Müller, Head of the State Chancellery 10:35 From Artes to SESAM to EEM: postgraduates programmes for development cooperation in Flensburg Dipl.-Ing. Wulf Boie and Dr. Dieter Klein, Europa-Universität Flensburg 11:00 Coffee Break 11:30 Resilience and sustainability in EM – Future development of energy related study programmes at the University of Flensburg Prof. Dr. Bernd Möller, Europa-Universität Flensburg 11:45 Renewable Energy for Community Resilience Nicholas Gubbins, Community Energy Scotland, Eric Dodd, Highland Council 12:15 Learning for international development cooperation Assoc. Prof. Mona-Lisa Dahms, UNESCO Chair of Problem Based Learning, Aalborg University 13:00 Lunch Break Establishment of working groups; preparation of the parallel sessions A- D Tea and coffee at Market of Opportunities 15:00 Opening: Market of Opportunities (EB entrance hall) – Poster exhibition with signature of MoU Welcome- Prof. Dr. Bernd Möller, Europa-Universität Flensburg 2 15:15 Remarks by Prof. Holger Jahnke, delegation member, Department of Geography, Europa Universität Flensburg Mr. Shivashankarappa, leader of Indian delegation Prof. Dr. Werner Reinhart, President of the Europa-Universität Flensburg 15:30 Joint signature of Memorandum of Understanding between JSS Mahavidyapeetha, Mysuru, India and Europa-Universität Flensburg 16:00-19:00 Renewable energy as catalyst for local economy Björn Meyer, Flensburg Chamber of Commerce and Industry Buffet- get together from 17:30 o´clock 17:00 FAEM Nepal – their contribution after the earthquake in Nepal – Dr. Narayan Chaulagain, President FAEM Nepal (tbc) 18:50 Bus back to Sankelmark Day two 22. September 2015 – Moderated parallel sessions – 2 working groups at European Academy Sankelmark 8:00 8:00 Breakfast Bus to Sankelmark for the students at the bus stop at “Feuerwehr-Haltestelle” (Fire brigade ) in Bahnhofstrasse, crossing Munketoft 8:45 Plenary session for all participants Parallel session I (4 Presentations Speakers) Chair: Dan Otieno Ong´Or Parallel session II (4 Presentations Speakers) Chair: Susy Simarangkir Parallel session III (4 Presentations Speakers) Chair: Arun Balamatti 9:00 - 9:45 Dr. Narayan Prasad Chaulagain Patrick Maina Kimari Nhien Ngo Thi To 10:00- 10:45 Yacouba Sambore Hai Anh Tran Fumi Harahap 10:45- 11:15 Coffee break 11:15- 12:00 Arif Md. Waliullah Buihyan Resha Piya Shrestha Nele Rumler 3 12:15- 13:00 Lady Johana Rivera Forero Elizabeth Mosqueda Maria Ana Gonzalez Casartelli 13:00 Lunch 14:00 Parallel session A Rural Electrification and Community Resilience Moderator: John Kuteesakwe, Nicholas Gubbins, Annika Groth Parallel session B Barriers and Drivers towards 100% renewable energies for all Moderator: Wulf Boie, Eric Dodd Result-oriented discussion and elaboration of working paper Result-oriented discussion and elaboration of working paper 16:00 Tea and coffee 17:00- 18:00 Parallel session A Rural Electrification and Community Resilience Moderator: John Kuteesakwe, Nicholas Gubbins, Annika Groth Parallel session B Barriers and Drivers towards 100% renewable energies for all Moderator: Wulf Boie, Eric Dodd Result-oriented discussion and elaboration of working paper Result-oriented discussion and elaboration of working paper Day three 23. September 2015 – Moderated parallel sessions –2 working groups at European Academy Sankelmark 8:00 Breakfast Parallel session IV (4 Presentations Speakers) Chair: Evans Hervie Parallel session V (4 Presentations Speakers) Chair: Arum Sari Reintegrations- Seminar 9:00-9:45 Mona Doctor-Pingel Qiying Hu Reintegrations- Seminar 10:00-10:45 Muhan Maskey Jorge Lossley Reintegrations- Seminar 10:45-11:15 Coffee break 4 11:15-12:00 Susy Simarangkir Mi Mi Maw Reintegrations- Seminar 12:15-13:00 Pushkar Manandhar Alexander Komakech- Akena Reintegrations- Seminar 13:00 Lunch 14:00 Parallel session C Policies and Planning for Resilience and Sustainability Moderator: Bernd Möller, August Schläpfer Parallel session D Education and Institutional Learning for Resilience and Sustainability Moderator: Holger Jahnke, Maria Mercedes Vanegas Parallel session E Reintegrations- Seminar Result-oriented discussion and elaboration of working paper Result-oriented discussion and elaboration of working paper Result-oriented discussion and elaboration of working paper 16:00 Tea and coffee 17:00 -18:00 Parallel session C Policies and Planning for Resilience and Sustainability Moderator: Bernd Möller, August Schläpfer Parallel session D Education and Institutional Learning for Resilience and Sustainability Moderator: Holger Jahnke, Maria Mercedes Vanegas Parallel session E Reintegrations- Seminar Result-oriented discussion and elaboration of working paper Result-oriented discussion and elaboration of working paper Result-oriented discussion and elaboration of working paper Day four 24. September 2015 - Plenary Synthesis Session at European Academy Sankelmark and Excursion 8:00 Breakfast 9:00 Presenting the outcomes of session I-V (Reintegration) 10:00 Coffee break 5 10:30 Global Alumni Networking Future development of energy related study programmes at the University of Flensburg – the alumni perspective Short presentations of alumni coordinators and plenary discussion (3-4) 12:00 Lunch break 12:50 Bus ready for departure 13:00 Field trip: visit of renewable energy projects in the vicinity of Flensburg – gathering at artefact 18/19:00 Artefact Grillabend – Rücktransport gegen 21 h Day five 25. September 2015 - Wrapping up and Graduation of EEM students at University of Flensburg (EB) 8:00 Breakfast 8:40 Bus to Campus 09:15 Arrival of guests 9:25 Musical opening 9:30 Welcome - Prof. Dr. Werner Reinhart, President of the Europa-Universität Flensburg 10:00 Welcome and review - Prof. Dr. Bernd Möller, Course Director 10:15 Welcome - student and alumni representatives 9:40 Musical break 10:40 Graduation ceremony 11:50 Tribute to 300th graduate 11:55 Musical closing 12:00 Photo session 12:30 Buffet 6 Environmental and Sustainability Issues in the Curricula for Ethiopian Teacher Education Colleges: Implications for Environmental Sustainability and Resilience Aklilu Dalelo Associate Professor of Geography and Environmental Education, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia Email: akliludw@gmail.com; dalelowa@leuphana.de ABSTRACT Institutions of teacher-education are believed to hold the key to equipping teachers to address sustainability in their classrooms and thereby shape the future of communities and nations around the world. It is suggested, however, that very few of the 60-70 million teachers in the world have had any exposure in their training to sustainability issues. Investigating the extent to which the curricula in Ethiopian teacher education colleges expose prospective teachers to environmental and sustainability issues lies at the core of the study the result of which is partly reported in this paper. To this end, content analysis was used as a principal technique for gathering information. The result indicates that some of the important aspects of environment and sustainability have been integrated across the curricula, albeit to a different degree. Geography and Civics and Ethical Education contain, for instance, a larger number of courses directly related to environmental and sustainability education than other disciplines. Among the subjects in the Natural Science and Mathematics cluster, Biology and Chemistry offer a relatively better opportunity to integrate issues related to sustainability. The paper also suggests implications of the findings to environmental sustainability and resilience; and ways as to how the observed limitations could be addressed. Key words/phrases: Agenda 21, Content analysis, Curriculum, Sustainability, Teacher education INTRODUCTION Although teachers are often unsung heroes in our communities, they are our hope for creating more sustainable societies. Furthermore, teacher-education institutions hold the key to equipping teachers to address sustainability in their classrooms and thus shape the future of communities and nations around the world (McKeown and Hopkins, 2002, p.252). Following the ever intensifying call for ensuring a sustainable future, there seems to be a renewed emphasis on the potential role of school teachers and institutions that train them. Stimpson [1] argues, for instance, that teachers in the classroom and the curricular choices they make are central to the success of environmental education initiatives. It is also noted that teachers as individuals need the understanding, skills and commitment to environmentalize their teaching without which it is unlikely that programmes will be effective in producing environmentally literate pupils. Teacher-education institutions, as a whole, have the opportunity to contribute to advancing global understanding of sustainability; reorienting education to address sustainability; and promoting sustainable lifestyles [2]. In line with this, UNESCO underscores that effective teacher education in the field would produce an environmentally literate population which in turn could result in environmental action. Incorporation of environmental education into teacher training is therefore considered as "crucial, not only to the future of the discipline but also to the future of the mailto:akliludw@gmail.com 7 environment" [3]. Others present teacher education as a good, non-economic, example of a multiplier effect in action. The justification presented here is that if a teacher learns something, then all of the students in his/her care over the duration of his/her career can be influenced by the learning of that teacher [4]. It has also been noted that the multiplier effect of educating teacher educators about EfS is even greater than that for teacher education students. All these arguments on the potential of teacher education led to the growing recognition of teacher education as the ‘priority of priorities’, as far as environmental and sustainability education is concerned. It was also suggested that “... nations should include teacher education institutions in their national sustainability plans” [5]. More specifically, teacher education institutions are expected to train new teachers; update the knowledge and skills of in-service teachers; create teacher-education curriculum; provide professional development for practicing teachers; contribute to textbooks; consult with local schools; provide expert opinion to regional and national ministries of education; and perform similar services for school principals ([5]; [6]; [7]). A document produced by the European Commission ([8], p.7). presents the following specific strategies to build the capacity of teachers, trainers and school leaders to promote and include the principles underlying sustainability in their approaches to teaching and management: o raising awareness among teachers, trainers and school leaders (at all levels of education and training) of the importance of ESD/EfS, and of the benefits of using this as a particularly useful tool in promoting transversal key competences; o ensuring that teachers and trainers are equipped to teach complex issues linked to ESD/EfS, through initial as well as in-service training, and providing them with adequate tools and learning materials; o encouraging cooperation between teachers of several subjects in the same school to promote teaching and learning on cross-cutting ESD/EfS issues; and o promoting networking, including on-line networking, among teachers in different schools to ensure the continued development and exchange of new ideas on ESD/EfS. THE PROBLEM The theoretical literature presented in the forgoing section provides a strong justification for involving primary school teachers in efforts aimed at ensuring a sustainable future. However, the reality on the ground in many countries seems to give a different picture. Beckford [6], for instance, suggests that environmental education concepts and knowledge are often perceived as 'caught' rather than taught. Other barriers to the implementation of EE in pre-service programs include problems with management of cross-disciplinary approaches or infusion, shortage of qualified and experienced environmental teacher educators, and few opportunities for novice teachers to undertake environmental education teaching and to observe good EE practice during their pre-service experience in schools [6]. A study that reviewed the status of EE in primary education in ten southern and eastern African countries (including Ethiopia) identified three notable barriers to further development of environmental education: inadequate provisions for EE in education policy; deficiencies in teacher training in EE; and a lack of instructional materials [9]. One should also underscore here that teachers can effectively fulfil what is expected of them only if they have, among other things, a curriculum which adequately and properly addresses environmental and sustainability issues; and the knowledge and skills required to deal with such issues. Previous studies indicated, however, that very few of the 60-70 million teachers in the world have had any exposure in their training to sustainability issues [10] (Sterling, 2004). 8 Similarly, studies conducted in Ethiopia show mixed results with regard to teachers’ awareness of and attitudes about environmental and sustainability issues ([11]; [12]; [13]; [14]). The results seem to be generally positive when it comes to the integration of environmental and sustainability issues into the school curricula. With regard to teachers’ knowledge of and attitudes about issues related to environmental protection and natural resource management, the findings seem to be less promising. According to Girma [14], nearly half of the trainees in the Teachers’ Training Institutes of Ethiopia who took part in a study had no mastery of environmental knowledge. Gebrekidan [13] also reported that there was a severe shortage of teachers with adequate training on issues related to population and environment. Another study [12] found a divided view (between favourable and unfavourable) regarding the use and protection of natural resources. A noticeable gap was observed between what educators in Ethiopia thought and what was being advocated by the proponents of the philosophy of sustainability. It was therefore recommended, 17 years ago, that efforts be made to empower Ethiopian teachers to address issues related to environment and development [12]. In the meantime, remarkable developments took place in Ethiopia particularly in the policy arena. A series of proclamations and policies related to environment and sustainable development have been issued; and offices in charge of environmental protection established at federal and regional levels. Whether such policy provisions have brought commensurate improvements in the ways in which environmental- and sustainability issues have been handled in Ethiopian teacher education colleges is not systematically investigated yet. This paper reports part of the results of a study aimed at assessing the current status of environmental- and sustainability education in Ethiopian teacher education colleges. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY As indicated above, noticeable efforts have been made in Ethiopia, since early 1990s, both at policy and practical levels to enable the country’s educational sector to address issues related to environment and development. The policy provisions following the regime change in 1991 seem to have created a unique opportunity for institutions of higher education in general and collages of teacher education (CTE) in particular to revise their programme goals, objectives, content and teaching strategies so as to make a meaningful contribution to environmental protection and sustainable development. Investigating the extent to which such efforts have been made by Ethiopian teacher education colleges to address environmental and sustainability issues lies at the core of the study the results of which is partly reported here. This paper presents the part of the study aimed at assessing the degree to and ways in which environmental- and sustainability issues have been addressed in the curricula for primary school teachers’ education colleges. METHODOLOGY Education for Sustainability focuses largely on the major social, economic, and environmental issues that threaten the sustainability of our planet. Many of these key issues have been identified at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro and outlined in Agenda 21 [2]. Agenda 21 is a document with forty chapters grouped under four broad sections: (I) social and economic dimensions; (II) conservation and management of resources; (III) strengthening the role of major groups; and (IV) means of implementation. It has been argued that understanding and addressing the issues identified in Agenda 21 lie at the heart of education for sustainability [2]. In line with this, this study selected 14 issues, which are more likely to be addressed in the curricula for teacher 9 education colleges in Ethiopia, for analysis from the first and second sections of Agenda 21 (Table 1). Table 1. Key issues addressed in Agenda 21 and identified for analysis Section/ Chapter Issue/theme Section/ Chapter Issue/theme I/3 Combating poverty1 II/14 Sustainable agriculture and rural development I/5 Demographic dynamics and sustainability II/15 Conservation of biological diversity I/6 Protecting and promoting human health II/16 Management of biotechnology II/9 Protection of the atmosphere II/18 Protection of the quality and supply of freshwater resources II/10 Planning and management of land resources II/19 Management of toxic chemicals II/11 Combating deforestation II/20 Management of hazardous wastes II/12 Combating desertification and drought II/21 Management of solid wastes and sewage Source: United Nations [15] As indicated earlier, the major aim of this study was assessing the extent to and ways in which environmental and sustainability issues have been addressed in the curricula for primary school teacher education colleges. To this end, content analysis was used as a principal technique. Content analysis is defined as “a research technique for objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication” (Berelson, 1952 quoted in [16], p.3). Content analysis as a research technique is also described as a careful, detailed, systematic examination and interpretation of a particular body of material in an effort “to identify patterns, themes, biases, and meanings” ([17], p.303-304). The technique is often accomplished through the use of objective language, categorization, and systematic surveys (Burns-Bammel et al., 1988 quoted in [18], p.39). The recently revised curricula (2009 version) for primary school teacher education colleges in Ethiopia has been analyzed based on the following steps: Step One: Determining analytical categories o The core courses (both major and minor area) offered in the three clusters: social science; natural science and mathematics; and language have been considered in this chapter as key analytical categories. According to the revised curriculum, prospective teachers are expected to take 56 credit hours worth courses of this category (which make up half of the total credit hours required for graduation). The other half is composed of professional and practicum courses which are not covered in this study. Step Two: Establishing units of analysis o The specific courses in the three clusters, indicated in step one, have been used as units of analysis. According to the revised curriculum, prospective teachers are expected to take about 19 three-credit hour courses in their major and minor areas. 1 The highlighted words or phrases will represent the whole theme in the analysis of results and discussions thereof in this paper. 10 Step Three: Determining criteria for sorting data into analytic categories o The criteria used here is having sustainability issues clearly (manifestly) mentioned in the statements of objectives and/or corresponding content outline. Fourteen such issues likely to be addressed in the curricula for teacher education colleges have been identified (Table 1). Step Four: Counting the number of entries in each of the three categories o This has been undertaken by counting cases (specific courses with objectives and/or contents related to sustainability issues). The counting was done by the writer himself. FINDINGS The Position of CTE in the Educational Structure Ethiopia witnessed a regime change in 1991 which resulted, among other things, in promulgation of a new education and training policy and an entirely new educational structure. The 1994 Educational and Training Policy changed the structure of general education from 6-2-4 to 8-4 [19]. The current structure thus constitutes of basic, general, higher and specialized education on a formal and non-formal basis (FDRE, 1994). The components are: 1. a kindergarten system for children aged 4-6 years; 2. a primary education from Grades 1-8 subdivided into two sections of basic (Grades 1-4) and general (Grades 5-8) education; 3. a general secondary education from 9-10; 4. a preparatory senior secondary education of 2 years and a system of vocational and technical education in parallel with it; 5. higher education of 1-2 years of diploma and 3-5 years for undergraduate degree and an additional 1-3 years for post graduate degree; 6. a system of vocational/technical training in parallel with the academic education; and 7. a special education system and distance learning. According to the new structure, the colleges of teacher education (CTE) which prepare teachers for primary schools fall under the fifth category (see the above structure); and are responsible to prepare teachers for the first and second cycles of primary education (those in the second category according to the new structure). The curriculum for the first cycle primary school teachers’ education is designed following the cluster modality where different subjects are brought under such clusters as social science; natural science and mathematics; and language. The curriculum for the second cycle follows, on the other hand, a linear modality whereby prospective students specialize in different disciplines like Biology or Geography. The following section presents results of assessment of the place of environment and sustainability in the curricula for CTE in Ethiopia, on stream basis. Sustainability Issues in the Social Science Stream Social Science forms one of the clusters that make up the first cycle primary school teachers’ education; and is composed of Geography, History and Civics and Ethical Education. Prospective teachers are supposed to take a total of 122 credit hours for graduation. Half of the credit hours goes to the three subject areas whereas the other half goes to general education courses, professional courses and practicum. On graduation, prospective teachers are supposed to teach three different subjects (Geography, History and Civics and Ethical Education). 11 Analysis of the existing curricula for the Social Science stream shows that Geography and Civics and Ethical Education contain a greater number of courses directly related to environmental and sustainability education (Table 2). One should particularly underline here that courses in Geography address all the three dimensions of sustainability, namely environment, economy and society. Geography offers (both in its cluster and linear modalities) seven courses that address some of the key sustainability issues of local and global relevance (Table 2). Table 2. Courses addressing issues related to sustainability (Social Science stream: Geography) Subject Course Issues related to sustainability Geography Introduction to climate o Meaning and scope of weather and climate o Elements and controls of weather and climate o Global warming: causes and effects o Ozone: Formation, depletion and effect o Energy balance of the earth and atmosphere o Spatial and temporal variation of temperature o Variation and distribution of precipitation o Variability and dependability of weather and climate Introduction to landform geography o Erosion and deposition; and resulting landforms Economic geography o Environmental perception and behavior o Man-environment interrelations o Factors affecting agriculture o Types of forests and their exploitation Geography of population o Factors affecting population distribution (physical, human, socio-economic and historical) o Population and resource balance o Origin and types of population policy Geography of Africa o Characteristic and distribution of temperature and rainfall in Africa o Soil conservation and management in Africa o Vegetation conservation and management in Africa o Utilization, conservation and management of forests in Africa o Wild animals conservation and management in Africa o Resource and population in Africa o Drought in Africa Geography of Ethiopia o Water resources and their significance o Types and distribution of natural vegetation o Conservation and management of natural vegetation o Types and distribution of wild animals o Conservation and management of wild animals o Soil erosion and conservation o Population policy of Ethiopia o Environmental policy of Ethiopia o Factors affecting agricultural activities Environmental education o Environment and development o The need for environmental education o Inception and aims of environmental education o Principles of environmental education o Environmental education in schools o The environmental education curriculum o The environmental education subject matter o Methods used in environmental education o Environmental education activities and equipment o Evaluation in environmental education o Environmental impact assessment 12 Courses in History, on the other hand, contain no themes directly related to environmental and sustainability education, except one. In History, a course entitled “History of the World” discusses the social, economic and political consequences of industrial revolution. This course could thus lay a strong foundation for understanding the environmental and sustainability crisis the world has gone through in the 20th century. Table 3 indicates some of the specific issues addressed in History and Civics and Ethical Education. Table 3. Courses addressing issues related to sustainability (Social Science stream: History and Civics and Ethical Education) Subject Course Issues related to sustainability History History of the world o Consequences of industrial revolution (social, economic, political) Civics and Ethical Education Advanced civics and ethical education I o Prevention of environmental pollution and wildlife destruction o Protection and preservation of historical and cultural heritages o Proper utilization of natural resources and cultural heritages Advanced civics and ethical education II o Major issues of development o Theories of development o Development in developing countries o Understanding the basis of Ethiopian economy o Policies and strategies of development in Ethiopia Selected topics in civics and ethical education o The issue of environment and heritage o The issue of gender o The issue of HIV/AIDS o The issue of population explosion o North-South debate Introduction to international relations and contemporary global issues o The issue of poverty, development and hunger o HIV/AIDS o The environment o Gender Environmental resources and heritage management o Understanding the environment o Biodiversity o National parks o Geological features o Water bodies o Climate o Current condition of the environment and the Ethiopian heritage o Factors accountable for environmental degradation o Deterioration of the Ethiopian cultural heritage o Mechanisms of safeguarding environment and heritages Civics and Ethical Education has five courses that contain almost all the important dimensions of sustainability education. What is more, the courses try to balance the need for protection and preservation of natural and cultural heritages, unlike previous efforts in environmental education in Ethiopia which tended to focus on the natural environment. The courses in Civics and Ethical Education also appear to take a broader view of poverty and development and introduce the North- South divide in the level of economic development and resource utilization which forms a very important part in any discussion on sustainable development. 13 Sustainability Issues in the Natural Science and Mathematics Stream The Natural Science and Mathematics cluster is composed of four subjects, i.e. prospective teachers trained in this cluster are prepared to teach one of the four subjects in the first cycle primary schools: Biology, Chemistry, Mathematics and Physics. Among the subjects in this cluster, Biology and Chemistry have a relatively better provision for inclusion of issues related to sustainability (Table 4). Biology has three courses dealing mainly with ecology, conservation and human health. The efforts to emphasize on the link between population growth, health and economic development are worth underlining here. The course entitled “Ecology and Conservation” covers issues ranging from greenhouse gases to global conventions. Table 4. Courses addressing issues related to sustainability (Natural Science and Mathematics stream: Biology) Subject Course Issues related to sustainability Biology General Biology o Conservation of natural resources o Rapid population growth and its effects on health, economy and the environment Ecology and Conservation o Global environmental change o Greenhouse gases o Global climate change o Conservation of natural resources o Values of biodiversity and ecosystem services o Threats to biodiversity (habitat degradation and loss, habitat fragmentation, overexploitation, invasive species) o Combating desertification o International conventions, and national policies and institutions Health Sciences o Environmental sanitation o Personal hygiene o Public health laws o Rapid population growth and its effects on health, economy and environment Microbiology and Biotechnology o Note: Here is a missed opportunity to introduce the debate on the pros and cons of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) Chemistry has two courses that focus mainly on energy and environmental pollution (Table 5). Almost every aspect of the contemporary environmental issue has been considered thereby creating a tremendous opportunity for the lecturers/teachers to engage their students so as to seek locally relevant solutions to some of these problems (e.g. solid waste management). Physics appears to be less engaged in sustainability education with only one of its courses, namely, “Earth Science and Astronomy” offering a significant opportunity to deal with sustainability issues. There is another course in Physics that slightly touches energy efficiency (Table 5). Table 5. Courses addressing issues related to sustainability (Natural Science and Mathematics stream: Chemistry and Physics) Subject Course Issues related to sustainability Physics Heat and Thermodynamics o The efficiency of engines Earth Science and Astronomy o Major global climate zones and changes in weather o Human impacts on weather and climate o Chemistry and environment 14 Chemistry General Chemistry III o Concept of environment o Environmental pollution o Air pollution o Water pollution o Soil pollution o Global warming o Greenhouse effect o Natural resources, energy and environment o Soil fertility and productivity o Agrochemicals Applied Chemistry o Water pollution and its prevention o Energy sources and consumption in industries o Factors for selection of fuels o Alternative energy sources o Ethiopian energy sources and consummation o Impact of anthropogenic chemicals on the environment o Soil and water pollution o Atmospheric pollution o Global warming and the consequences o Ozone depletion and its causes o Waste from industries and municipalities o Reducing waste generation o Recycling waste o Effects of toxic chemicals on the health of animals and plants Though there are noticeable efforts in Biology curriculum to link population issues with ecological and economic consequences, the Natural Science and Mathematics curriculum generally tends to focus on the ecological component of sustainability much more than the other components, namely social and economic. The debates surrounding the effects of chemicals being used in Ethiopian industries (e.g. horticultural industries) and the controversies on use of genetically modified organisms could have been integrated into the curricula. In this regard, the course in Biology, entitled “Microbiology and Biotechnology” exemplifies a missed opportunity to introduce the debate on the pros and cons of genetically modified organisms. Sustainability Issues in the Language Stream The Language stream is composed of English, Amharic and a local languages. Prospective teachers in this cluster where local languages are not taught will take Civics and Ethical Education as a third subject. Compared to the other clusters, the integration of sustainability seems very modest in the case of courses in the Language stream. Table 6 shows issues related to sustainability addressed in this cluster. Three important issues have been addressed in English. These issues have been presented as reading texts in two of the courses; Communicative English I and Communicative English II (Table 6). One can thus see that there are opportunities to include more issues related to sustainability not only in English but also Amharic (official language) and other local languages. Table 6: Courses addressing issues related to sustainability (Language stream) Subject Course Issues related to sustainability English Communicative English Skills I o Sense of responsibility Communicative English Skills II o Poverty and globalization o Ethiopian water resources 15 Integration of Issues in Agenda 21 As indicated in the methodology section, this study attempted to see the degree to which sustainability issues identified in Agenda 21 have been ‘manifestly’ addressed in the revised curricula for CTE in Ethiopia. To this end, 14 issues likely to be addressed in the Ethiopian context have been selected (Tables 1 and 7). It is important to underscore that 13 out of the 14 issues have been integrated into the existing curricula, albeit to a different degree. Issues that have been integrated into three or more courses include protection of the atmosphere (integrated into 5 courses); planning and management of land resources (into 4 courses); and protection of fresh water resources (into 4 courses); and demographic dynamics (into 3 courses). The following are issues integrated into two courses: Combating poverty; combating deforestation; combating desertification and drought; sustainable agriculture and rural development; and conservation of biological diversity. Four of the issues have been integrated into one course whereas one issue, namely, management of biotechnology, has not been integrated anywhere in the curricula examined here (Table 7). Table 7: Sustainability issues in Agenda 21 integrated into the curricula for CTE in Ethiopia Section/ Chapte r Issue/theme Department Course I/3 Combating poverty2 Civics and Ethical Education Introduction to International Relations and Contemporary Global Issues English Communicative English Skills II I/5 Demographic dynamics and sustainability Geography Geography of Population Civics and Ethical Education Selected Topics in Civics and Ethical Education Biology General Biology I/6 Protecting and promoting human health Biology Health Sciences II/9 Protection of the atmosphere Geography Introduction to Climate Biology Ecology and Conservation Chemistry General Chemistry III Applied Chemistry Physics Earth Science and Astronomy II/10 Planning and management of land resources Geography Introduction of Landform Geography Geography of Africa Geography of Ethiopia Civics and Ethical Education Environmental Resources and Heritage Management II/11 Combating deforestation Geography Geography of Africa Biology Ecology and Conservation II/12 Combating desertification and drought Geography Geography of Africa Biology Ecology and Conservation II/14 Sustainable agriculture and rural development Geography Economic Geography Geography of Ethiopia II/15 Conservation of biological diversity Civics and Ethical Education Environmental Resources and Heritage Management 2 The highlighted words or phrases will represent the whole theme in the analysis of results and discussions thereof in the paper. 16 Biology Ecology and Conservation II/16 Management of biotechnology --------- -------- II/18 Protection of the quality and supply of freshwater resources Geography Economic geography Civics and Ethical Education Environmental Resources and Heritage Management Chemistry General Chemistry III Applied Chemistry II/19 Management of toxic chemicals Chemistry Applied Chemistry II/20 Management of hazardous wastes Chemistry Applied Chemistry II/21 Management of solid wastes and sewage Chemistry Applied Chemistry Table 7 shows, among other things, that most of the sustainability issues identified in Agenda 21 are already integrated into two or more of the courses in the revised curricula for Ethiopian teacher education colleges. This, by itself, is quite encouraging. One should also underline here that integration alone does not ensure appropriate handling of the issues in and outside a college classroom. In any case, results of this study give an important clue as to where we have good entry points to build the capacity of college teachers to address key environmental and sustainability issues in the future. In relation to this, Down ([20] p.398) advises that "lecturers need to use 'natural' entry points to the introduction of the concept of sustainability, that is, areas of the subject that can dovetail easily with reflection on and learning about sustainability". On the other hand, this study also shows areas which need more work so as to make environmental and sustainability education a nationwide agenda embraced by all departments (and not left to individual subjects and lecturers/teachers). CONCLUSION It is strongly argued that 'if education is a solution in working toward a sustainable future then initial teacher training (ITT) provides a strategic opportunity for ensuring that all teachers are able to teach for sustainability when they begin their teaching carriers" ([21], p.599). For this to happen, environmental education "should become a requisite component of pre-service teacher education and that faculties of education make EE a teachable subject and expose all teacher candidates to it" [6]. In Ethiopia, colleges of primary school teacher education occupy a pivotal position which helps them play a leading role in enhancing a culture of critical thinking among the various segments of the society. First, they are fairly widely distributed across the country thereby having a great chance to reach local communities, particularly rural communities which make up more than 80% of the country’s population. Second, they are responsible for training teachers for primary schools which house millions of kids, a good proportion of whom having little chance to go beyond grade eight. Third, it is easier to integrate place-based environmental and development issues at this level than, for instance, at a university level. Fourth, it is possible to utilize the already existing networks between these colleges and the schools in their areas of influence to maximize the impact of possible interventions (without a need for additional resources or with relatively much less resources). Achieving all this requires, among other things, provision of adequate curricular time for environmental and sustainability issues in the CTE. This study tried to examine whether or not this was the case by analyzing the revised curricula. 17 The results of the study indicate that most of the sustainability issues identified in Agenda 21 have already been integrated into two or more of the courses. Discipline wise, Geography and Civics and Ethical Education contain a larger number of courses directly related to sustainability education. It is particularly underlined that courses in Geography address all the three dimensions of sustainability, namely, environment, economy and society. Likewise, Civics and Ethical Education offers courses that contain almost all the dimensions of sustainability education. What is more, the courses in Civics and Ethical Education take a broader view of poverty and development and introduce the North-South divide in level of economic development and resource utilization. Among the subjects in the Natural Science and Mathematics cluster, Biology and Chemistry have a relatively better provision for inclusion of issues related to sustainability. The effort made in Biology to emphasize the link between rate of population growth, health and economic development is worth underlining here. Chemistry has courses that focus mainly on energy and environmental pollution. Almost every aspect of the contemporary environmental issue has been duly considered in Chemistry courses. Based on the major findings of the study, it is possible to conclude the existing curricula for Ethiopian CTE already address a range of environmental and suitability issues and, therefore, provide a huge potential to contribute towards environmental sustainability and resilience. At the same time, one should also underscore that the making full use of the curriculum requires (a) strengthening those areas that have been addressed only slightly (e.g. loss of biodiversity); (b) including issues which have not been addressed; and (c) ensuring that aspects of sustainability are integrated into as many disciplines as possible. Achieving all this, in turn, requires consideration of environmental and sustainability issues as a 'priority' by educational policy makers, educational administrators and teachers [9]. Finally, as the issues already integrated into the curricula give adequate entry for environmental and sustainability education in these institutions, the Colleges or other stakeholders should consider conducting an on-the-job training for teachers with a focus of active learning methodologies. Some scholars put a special emphasis on the contribution of school focused continuous professional development (CPD) in achieving the aims of educational for sustainability [22]. It has thus been underlined that "whatever the educational system, CPD provision in environmental/sustainability education must have a significant school focus" ([22], p.380). REFERENCES 1. Stimpson, P. G., Environmental Challenge and Curricular Responses in Hong Kong. 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Environmental Education Research, Vol. 6, No. 4, pp.363-382,2000 http://www.ibe.unesco.org/International/ICE/natrap/Ethiopia.pdf 19 THE UGANDA ENERGY SECTOR – TRACING SUSTAINABILITY IN THE FACE OF A BURGEONING OIL SECTOR -A POLICY REVIEW- Alexander Komakech-Akena1* 1: Senior Energy and Power Engineer AOT Consulting (EA) Limited P.O. Box 10061 Kampala, Uganda e-mail: a.komakech@aotconsulting.co.ug Keywords: Low carbon emission, Oil exploitation, Sustainability, Renewables, CO2, Abstract This paper critically assesses the current status quo of the energy sector in Uganda, particularly highlighting such important aspects as the contributions of the various energy alternatives (fossil fuel-base and renewable sources), government strategic plans, as well as the electricity consumption and supply. A projection of the growth, for aggregate energy production, consumption and GHGs is then made. Basing on the observations, the paper projects the expected rise in CO2 emission level resulting from increased oil usage mostly in transport and power sub-sectors. Further analysis of the economic and social cost related to developing renewable energy sources against fossil fuel based plants is made. The paper also discusses the potential impacts of climate change on hydrological base power plants. The paper answers such pertinent questions as: Can we keep the CO2 levels below acceptable thresholds and protect the environment, even in an oil-complemented energy sector? How must Uganda modify the current energy policies and strategies to ensure that energy development shall be done sustainably when the oil and gas sectors become big players in the energy market? What are the lessons regarding sustainable energy development that we can learn from countries that have only recently started exploiting oil resources? The paper concludes with a proposed path for Uganda to develop her energy sector, even with oil, in a sustainable fashion. 1. INTRODUCTION Hitherto, Uganda’s electricity has been generated mainly from renewable hydrological sources, and only supplemented by a small percentage of fossil fuels. For that reason alone, CO2 emission level has so always been low, below 3,784ktCO2 annually- representing 0.1% of the World3 which is considered non distressful. That is all bound to change with commencement of commercial oil production in Uganda, scheduled for 2017/18. A remarkable increase in fossil fuel usage, especially in the transport and energy sector once commercial production starts. This will in turn increase the GHGs emission level of Uganda, bringing the question of sustainable energy development into focus. The challenge, therefore, is how to develop a sustainable and strategic development plan for the evolving energy industry where the contribution from oil and gas products is on the increase. 3 Word Bank Databank - http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.ATM.CO2E.KT/countries?display=m , May 2013 mailto:komakech@aotconsulting.mail.com http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.ATM.CO2E.KT/countries?display=m 20 2. ENERGY SITUATION The energy sector of Uganda is dominated by biomass, which accounts for more than 90% of the total primary energy supply (TPES). Electricity contributes only 1.3% while the remaining 8.7% is from Oil and petroleum products [source?].The generation mix is of the order 52% from hydropower – contributed by; Kiira (200MW), Bujagali (250MW), Nalubaale (180MW) and eight small hydropower plants (56.5MW), 43% thermal power and 5% utilizing small generation source based on renewable sources such as mini hydro and bagasse. The total installed capacity of the country is 818.5MW, with an actual output of about 580 MW 4.Figure 2-1 outlines a summarized representation of the major power plants in Uganda. At peak time, the electricity demand rises to 650MW(1), which leaves about 28% of the electricity demand unmet. With this shortfall, power rationing is necessary to balance the rising peaks. Electrification rates remain low, at 12%(2). This can be further broken down to 10% for urban and 6% for rural areas. The low electrification rates are attributed to delays - caused by “lack of finances or access to funding, to construct new power plants” [insert source]. The rise in demand for new electricity connections, as registered by the Power Utility (Umeme), is estimated at 20% per year, further increasing pressure on the supply side. Figure 2-1: Power Plants in Uganda Source: Author compiled Despite the seemingly gloomy energy situation, Uganda is abundantly endowed with energy resources, a large portion of which is renewable and remains largely un-tapped. Together with the discovery of oil, these resources, if well exploited, would comfortably meet the country’s power demands, and even export to the neighbouring countries. 2.1. Share of Renewables Renewable energy resources have a high share in Uganda’s power generation mix, contributing almost 95% of the power generated. Hydropower plants and biomass sources such as bagasse jointly produce about 780MW towards the total national power production in the present day. 4 Counting all power plants including the thermal diesel generation sets at district levels 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 C a p a ci ty ( M W ) Major Power Plants in Uganda 21 Fossil-fuelled power plants are intentioned to serve as a temporary coping strategy to manage the run-away demand at peak times. This trend is set to change when all the planned and proposed hydro power plants are implemented by 2030. Figure 2-1 illustrates how the power generation sector has benefited from renewable resources since 1980. The shortfall in 2005 and 2006 in the growth show how the power sector was affected by long draughts and erratic rainfalls of those years. Figure 2-2: Capacity Percentage Share by Resource type Source: Compiled by Author from PSIPD, MEMD Figure 2-3: Renewable energy contribution power generation in Uganda Source: CIA database, 2014 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 5 2 0 1 6 2 0 1 7 2 0 1 8 2 0 1 9 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 1 2 0 2 2 2 0 2 3 2 0 2 4 2 0 2 5 2 0 2 6 2 0 2 7 2 0 2 8 2 0 2 9 2 0 3 0 BAU - Electricity Generation Forecast Clean energy Renewable Base (hydrological) Fossi fuel- Base 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 Renewables in Uganda 22 2.2. Oil in Uganda Traditional ‘oil nations’ in Africa have long comprised of Libya, Angola, Nigeria, Algeria, Egypt and Sudan until the recent entry of newcomers like; Ghana, Uganda and Mozambique. As international oil companies intensify their exploration for oil and gas on the continent, the number of newcomers is set to rise, as more and more oil deposits are discovered. For Uganda, the burgeoning oil sector is a welcome ‘gift of nature.’ After the confirmation of commercial deposits of oil and gas in the Albertine Graben5 in 2006, preparations have since been made to explore and exploit the resource. It is estimated that some 3.5 billion barrels in reserve lie untapped and due for commercial production by 20176. About 40% of Albertine Graben has been explored, with over 90 wells drilled on tilted fault blocks, rollover anticlines and flower structures of significant sizes. Wells drilled on a number of structures during 2002—2013 confirmed the presence of multiple exploitable accumulations of hydrocarbons making 21 discoveries and providing up over 3.5 billion barrels of Oil equivalent. Flow testing of the Waraga, Mputa, Kingfisher, Kigogole and Kasamene prospects has yielded flow rates between 3,550 and 12,000 BOPD (2) The Government plans to utilise the first fruiting of this oil to increase electricity generation capacity through thermal power plants. In the Grid Development Plan (GDevP) reviewed, UETCL has plans to evacuate over 6000MW of electricity generated by heavy fuel oil (HFO) and CCGT technologies through 400kV transmission line (3) from the Albertine Graben region. However, in the short term, slightly over 50MW of electricity is to be generated from the region. Plans are already underway to implement the evacuation of this power through the proposed 220kV Hoima – Kafu line. In addition to increasing the share of modern energy for end-users in the commercial and household subsectors, the Ugandan community shall benefit from other by-products such as kerosene, diesel and LPG. The immediate social challenge is to develop the new oil sector in a way that will ensure that benefits and opportunities are equally and equitability distributed, and in an ethical manner. This would require good management and transparency right from the infancy stages of developing this sector. By national policy, the citizens in the oil-rich regions of the country -e should enjoy preferential social and economic benefits directly accruing from the exploitation of this oil resource. In order to accommodate such a requirement, Uganda might need to set up the entire sector anew, with new institutions that will supervise, manage and develop the oil resource sustainably. New policies and strategies that will govern and regulate the operations of the new emerging policy and market will be necessary. 2.3. Affected sectors of the Economy An adequate supply of cheaper petroleum and gas products in the near future is bound to have tremendous impact on the economy as a whole. Considering that Uganda’s transport sector is heavily dependent of oil products such as (diesel, petrol, aviation fuel, fuel oil, kerosene, lubricants and bitumen, it is certainly one of the key sectors to be most influenced by burgeoning oil and gas production. That petroleum products are imported exposes the country’s economy to fluctuating 5 The Albertine Graben forms part of the Western arm of the East African Rift System. The Graben is a unique physiographic region comprising the rift escarpments, the block of the Rwenzori Mountains and an extensive graben. The area has several lakes including Albert, Edward and George(16). 6 Adjustment of year from 2014 to 2017 23 and exorbitant prices together with a significant level of uncertainty with regard to their availability. With commercial oil production in Uganda, the impact of oil price shocks and the erratic supply of imported petroleum products on the economy is expected to reduce. The country will also enjoy growing supplies of foreign exchange by importing some of its oil products and the resulting electricity. The electricity sector is yet another that will be heavily impacted. Oil products have traditionally been used in thermal power plants to supplement what the country generates from hydro power dams. Oil products are also the main fuel for most stand-alone power systems as well as well as off-grid electrification schemes. In summary, it is envisaged that the power and transport sectors will benefit most from the burgeoning oil industry. It is therefore reasonable to anticipate a surge in commerce, trade, production and the general economy once the commercial production kicks off. 3. EXISTING FRAMEWORK This section provides assessment and analysis of the existing policy framework. We outline only those legislative documents that are expected to impact new oil and gas sector, and have relevancy to increasing access to clean modern energy and environment protection. 3.1. Sector Acts and Policies The Electricity Act, 1999 The electricity act, establishes a strong foundation for which the entire electricity sub-sector is managed and regulated. The act mandates the establishment the sub-electricity sector as well as providing for formation of the responsible institutions. It is this act that established the Electricity Regulatory Authority (ERA) and unbundled the Uganda Electricity Board (UEB) to form three electricity companies to manage the electricity infrastructural utilities of Uganda. Under Part VII, Section 63 (1) and (2), sustainable development is discussed in inference to ‘Rural electrification’. The act allows for renewable energy power generation by utilising renewable energy resources such as solar photovoltaic power, mini hydropower and wind energy. The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002 The policy goal is to meet the energy need of Uganda’s population for social and economic development in an environmentally sustainable manner. At a high level, the policy introduces the various energy sources available in Uganda, and the opportunities and challenges surrounding their exploitation, strategically. It also outlines the guiding principles for exploiting these very resources. At the time of its drafting, the petroleum industry/exploitation in Uganda was at its exploration stage. This exploration was in the Albertine region. The challenge of sustainable fossil energy development was therefore not given any attention in this policy, however environmental and sustainable development is explicitly discussed. 24 The Renewable Energy Policy of Uganda, 2007 The goal of this policy is to increase use and share of modern renewable energy from 4% to 61% of the total energy consumption by the year 2017. The main driver of this ambitious goal is: the ever-increasing price fossil fuel, the unpredictability of the future supplies of fossil fuels and the need for the energy sector to comply with the requirements of the Kyoto protocol. The renewable energy sources of Uganda include but are not limited to hydrological sources, wind, solar, biomass and geothermal. The estimated total electrical potential of the renewable energy sources is estimated at 5,300 MW. The large hydropower potential alone is estimated at about 2,000 MW, mainly from six potential hydro sites along river Nile. The six major hydro power sites are Bujagali 250MW, Kalangala 450 MW, Karuma (Kamdini) 650 MW, Ayago North 300 MW, Ayago South 250 MW, and Murchison falls 600 MW. The level of electrification is about 10% countrywide and 5% in rural areas. Interesting to note is that the policy too is silent on fossil fuel exploitation path and the sustainability challenges that would come along this path. The Petroleum Act, 2013 The purpose of this act is to operationalize the Oil and Gas Policy of Uganda. It is aimed at establishing an effective legal framework and institutional structures to ensure that the exploration, development and production of petroleum resources of Uganda is carried out in a sustainable manner that guarantees optimum benefits for all Ugandans, both the present and future generations. It creates a conducive environment for efficient management of the petroleum resources. Establishes institutions to manage the petroleum resources and regulate the petroleum activities. It regulates petroleum activities including licensing, exploration, development, production and cessation of petroleum activities or decommissioning, Ensuring public safety and protection of public health and the environment in petroleum activities. It supports the development of state participation and national content in the petroleum industry in Uganda and ensures transparency and accountability in the conduct of all activities regulated under this act. The National Oil and Gas Policy, 2008 (NOGP) The NOGP confirms government of Uganda’s intention to the extraction and exploitation the oil and gas reserves found on the Albertine Graben and anywhere else in the country. The goals of this policy include; Promotion of valuable utilization of the country’s oil and gas resources, promotion of the development of suitable transport and storage solutions which give good value to the country’s oil and gas resources and ensuring that oil and gas activities are undertaken in a manner that conserves the environment and biodiversity. Oil and Gas Revenue Management policy, 2012 (OGRMP) The policy provides details on how the anticipated revenues shall be managed and integrated into the existing Government system, with a view of managing the overall impact of these revenues on the economy. The policy establishes an appropriate framework to aid the sustainable management of the oil and gas revenues. It calls for the highest level of transparency and accountability in the management of oil and gas revenue and gives the institutional and governance structures to be used to achieve it. Furthermore, it promotes harmony and social cohesion, by providing for a mechanism for sharing royalty revenues with local governments within the oil producing region. The document was developed in fulfilment of the NOGP requirement. 25 Since oil revenues and their management present opportunities as well as unique policy challenge, the key of the OGRMP is to avoid the so called resource curse7 The National Environment Act, Cap 153 (1995) The Act provides for the planning requirement, preventive measures, enforcement actions and control mechanism during execution of projects that are likely to impact on the environment. The Act established NEMA as the corporate body mandated to co-ordinate monitoring and enforcement of environmental standards. According to section 57(1) of the Act, no person shall discharge hazardous substances, chemical, oil or mixture containing oil in any waters or other segment of environment except in accordance with guidelines prescribed by NEMA. Section 4(3)(c) requires that an on-going activity shall be subjected to an environmental audit in accordance with section 23 of the Act while section 4(3)(d) requires that an on-going activity undertakes environmental monitoring in accordance with section 24 of the Act. Section 3(2) (g) addresses the issue of establishing adequate environmental standards and to monitor changes on environmental quality. Section 3(2) (k) ensures that the cost of pollution will be borne by the polluter. 3.2. Sector Programs and Initiatives a) Strategic Environmental Assessment of Oil and Gas Activities (SEA), 2013 The objective of SEA was to ensure that the environmental issues associated with the Oil and Gas sector are considered and integrated into regulations, major decisions connected to policies, plans and programmes (PPP) and specific strategic aspects related to petroleum activities at the earliest stage in order to achieve the goals of the NOGP. With regard to Uganda, the SEA is aimed at supporting sustainable development, which defines the environment as comprising of the physical environment, cultural heritage and socio-economic effects due to petroleum-related activities in the Albertine Graben. b) SE4ALL The sustainable Energy for All initiative is a multi-stakeholder partnership amongst governments, the private sector and civil society. Launched by the UN Secretary General in 2011, it has three inter-linked objectives to be achieved by 2030: Ensure universal access to modern energy services, double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency and double the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix. All the three objectives are equally important and reinforce each other in important ways. c) Grid Development Plan 2011-2027 A review of the GDevP shows an extensive plan by government to evacuate power from Albertine Graben region that will be generated by the resultant oil. A 400kV transmission line is planned. 7Resource curse is phenomenon through which several economic, institutional and political economy transmission mechanisms, oil and gas revenues translate into economic stagnation and waste. 26 Table 3-1: Proposed/Planned thermal power plants and associated power lines Plant Ref. Capacity (MW) Interconnection from power plant Gas– CCGT, Albertine A 1500 (2X750) 400kV DCST-Quadruple Albertine region to Nakasongola HFO, Albertine A 1500 (2X750) Gas – CCGT, Albertine B 1500 (2X750) Mputa – Hoima – Kafu 400kV DCST- Quadruple. Karuma – Kafu – Nakasongola - Kawanda Second line (400kV DCST Quadruple) Karuma – Lira – Opuyo – Tororo second line , 400kV DCST bundled HFO, Albertine B 1500 (2X750) 400kV DCST-Bundle Nakasongola- Kawanda HFO, Albertine B 1500 (2X750) 400kV DCST-Bundle Nakasongola- Kawanda Source: GDevP, 2015 3.3. Analysing the gaps and grey areas within the policy frameworks (NT/AK) A summary of the reviewed legal framework documents of Uganda energy sector is outlined in Table 3-2. It can be noted that the founding policies in the sector have semblance of strong sustainability. This is the case because the country’s energy resources are mainly of the renewable nature, and hence the focus of these documents. The legal frameworks establish a strong mindedness towards developing the energy sector in a sustainable manner, even with the oil and gas sector. Key interest was noted to be put on utilising the renewable energy base of Uganda as opposed to fossil fuel. However, still as shown by the table some these legal documents did not have a clear strategy and plan of how sustainability of the energy and environment sector will be achieved. Table 3-2: Summary of Reviewed Policies Document Key areas addressed Sustainable development approached Existence of a clear strategy and plan of how to achieve SD Modern energy access Fair share of per capita end use Emphasis on clean and renewable energy 27 Energy Policy YES YES YES YES YES Renewable Energy policy YES YES YES YES YES Electricity Act YES NO YES NO YES National Environment Act NO NO NO YES YES National Oil and Gas Policy NO NO NO YES NO Petroleum Act NO NO NO YES NO Oil and Gas Revenue Management Policy NO YES NO YES NO Source: Compiled by Author 4. SUSTAINABILITY OF THE ENERGY SECTOR 4.1. CO2 Emissions Uganda’s CO2 emissions compared to the rest of the world is very low, accounting only 0.1% tCO2. Figure 4-1 shows the prognosis of CO2 emissions in Uganda since the year 1980. The contribution of CO2 emissions from thermal power plants can be noticed by an increase between 2005 and 2012 when Aggreko I,II&III8 where commissioned. Figure 4-1: kgCO2 in Uganda Source: CIA country data 8Most of the Aggreko Thermal power plants have since been decommissioned. Currently 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 1 9 8 0 1 9 8 2 1 9 8 4 1 9 8 6 1 9 8 8 1 9 9 0 1 9 9 2 1 9 9 4 1 9 9 6 1 9 9 8 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 4 2 0 0 6 2 0 0 8 2 0 1 0 Uganda 28 4.2. Sustainability We understand ‘sustainability’ in context of energy supply and consumption by attempting to define sustainable energy development. Energy and therefore adequate energy supply is fundamental to human and society development. “Energy is golden thread that connects economic growth, increased social equity, and an environment that allows the world to thrive,” - UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. Energy is universally regarded the centre of any human activity and it is required for development, as in turn energy consumption patterns influence development patterns It influences on production processes and service delivery. Energy is argued to be at the centre of any human activity as it is in turn influence development patterns. On the other hand, ‘development’ is a value word, implying a change that is desirable, - usually dictated upon by goals or objectives. Development depends on what social goals are being advocated by government and development agencies or people. If we therefore take development to be a vector (D) of desirable social objectives, such as a list of social objectives which society/communities seeks to achieve or maximize, then the elements of this vector might include: (1) increasing income (2) improvement of health (3) education (4) access to resources (5) basic needs freedom and etc. We propose a mathematical expression incorporating all the above as in equation 1 below. 𝐷(𝑥1, 𝑥2, 𝑥3, … 𝑥𝑛) (1) Where: D is the development vector and, 𝑥1x, 𝑥2x are elements of the vector D (desirable social objectives) Achieving these goals requires time, thus, time becomes the basis upon which all factors are measured, whether the goals are reached or not. Therefore, modifying the vector (D) as in equation 2; indicating the changes that would be achieve with a small change in time. In this case Sustainable development is where the development vector does not decrease overtime. 𝜕𝐷(𝑡) 𝜕𝑡 > 0 (2) Environmental economics however holds that to achieve satisfactory development, we need to bear in mind that our share of natural resources available should be equitable, efficient and equal to support across generational existence. In this sense, sustainability is achieved if we bear in mind that the earth’s resources are finite and our actions impact the environment. The simple objectives of sustainable energy development can then be summarized as; (1) improving quality of final energy, (2) a fair share of per capita energy use and (3) access to energy resources and benefits. Robert Repetto’s in his definition of Sustainable development declared “Sustainable development is a development strategy that manages all assets, natural resources, and human resources as well as financial and physical assets for increasing long term wealth and well-being. Sustainable development, as a goal rejects policies and practices that support current living standards by depleting the productive base, including natural resources and that leave future generations with poorer prospects and greater risks than our own.” – (Repetto, 1986 p15). His definition gives more 29 clarity and understanding to the Brundtland9 Commission’s definition of Sustainable development that specificies “Social, Economic and Environment” aspects being inter-linked. Understanding the concept of sustainability would therefore mean making policies that ensure and support equity, efficiency, and equality a resources. At the same time, protection of the environment should be put into consideration as society strives to achieve her development objectives. For Uganda, this policy framework exists; but there remain uncertainties over whether these well-intentioned policies will be fully implemented. In the discussion of sustainable energy in Uganda, it should be noted that there is a very high dependency of the energy sector on biomass. This needs very urgent attention. The escalating rate of clearing vegetation for cooking and charcoal means that the national carbon sink is steadily dwindling. One suggestion to counter this trend is to have gas from Uganda’s oil replace biomass as the primary fuel for cooking in households. Conservation of vegetation cover in Uganda will play a pivotal role in managing tour country’s carbon footprint and in turn ensuring sustainable energy development. 4.3. Vulnerability of energy systems in Uganda a) High dependence on biomass energy resource Of the TPES, electricity contributes 1.3%, fossil fuels 8.7% with 90% coming from biomass resources. This high dependence and escalated harvesting of biomass puts a lot of stress on the country’s natural vegetation and has resulted in massive deforestation in many parts of the country. This pattern of energy consumption is a major threat to the country’s economic development. b) Hydropower generation sensitivity to rainfall variations Reliance on a large hydrological power generation resources has its pros and cons. Because Uganda’s hydropower generation is highly dependent on the amount of water-flow in the rivers, seasonal changes in the amount of rainfall directly affect the power generated. In many cases, this causes load shedding and in certain instances has caused completely power cut-offs. Electricity production in Uganda is therefore highly vulnerable to climate variability. c) High Investment Costs for the Large-Hydro Power Plants Uganda is looking to build more large hydro power plants to further boost its power production capacity. Much as this is a welcome development, the investment costs of these power plants are massive, so much that the country cannot fund them. The alternative is international financing which attracts interest and hence a high cost per unit of power produced. That is not to mention a growing national debt burden that might adversely affect the national economy and future power projects financing. 9 The Brundtland Commission’s brief definition of sustainable development as the “ability to make development sustainable—to ensure that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” 30 d) Low income per capita and Electricity access challenges The cost of extending the transmission grid remains prohibitively expensive. Even where the grid has been extend to some parts of the country, owing to low levels of economic activity and hence low incomes, the intended beneficiaries might not afford to pay for the electricity. 5. CONCLUSION AND POLICY IMPLICATION The paper draws conclusions based on discussions of the policy framework, development trends and challenges faced by the energy market in Uganda. It is observed that Uganda’s installed capacity increased two folds over the last seven years to stand at 818.5MW in 2012. The annual growth rate of the country’s installed capacity set to increase twice as much as it is currently. The policy review reveals that the country is equipped with appropriate and adequate policy instruments to keep the energy development on a sustainable path, even with this emerging sector. However, there remain uncertainties over with strategies and implementation plans for the policies. And given the reliance of the country on biomass, the management of this resource will determine whether or not the country stays on course of sustainable energy development. REFERENCES 1. van der Plas, Robert J. and Kyezira, A.Target Market Analysis, Uganda's Small Hydro Energy Market. Frankfurt : GIZ GmbH, 2009. 2. Petroleum Exploration and Production Department. [Online] 6 March 2014. [Cited: 26 April 2014.] http://www.petroleum.go.ug/page.php?k=curnews&id=80. 3. UETCL.Grid Development Plan 2011 -2017. Kampala : Uganda Electricity Transmission Company Limited, 2011. 4. MEMD.Annual Energy Report. Kampala : Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, 2010. 5. —. Energy and Mineral Sector Peformance Report . Kampala : Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, 2013. 6. —. Energy Policy. Kampala : Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, 2002. 7. —. Renewable Energy Policy. Kampala : Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, 2007. 8. —. Annual Report. Kampala : MEMD, 2011. 9. —. Rural Electrification Strategy Plan. Kampala : Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, 2001. 10. MFPED.Poverty Eradication Action Plan. Kampala : Ministry of Finance and Mineral Development, 2002. 11. OECD/IEA.WEO-2010: Energy Poverty -How to make modern energy access universal? s.l. : IEA, 2010. 12. REA.Stategic Plan 2005/6-2011/12. Kampala : Rural Electricity Agency , 2006. Policy. 13. WorldBank.The Little Data Book on Africa. s.l. : The World Bank, 2011. 14. UN-Energy Africa.Energy for Sustainable Developement: Policy Option for Africa. December 2010. 15. MFPED.Oil and Gas Revenue Management Policy. Kampala : Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development, 2012. 31 Developing self-sustainable solar-run community schools: Case study from Light of Hope’s digital school in Bangladesh Arif Md. Waliullah Bhuiyan Light of Hope, H#282, R#19/C, Mohakhali DOHS, Dhaka – 1206, Bangladesh bhuiyan.waliullah@gmail.com ABSTRACT There are about 50,000 primary schools in Bangladesh located in off-grid areas where communities around those schools have limited access to information, opportunity to get internet based services. The main objective of the study was to develop a financially self-sustainable solar-run school model for developing countries that will create employment opportunity, generate revenue besides providing quality education to the children. Survey was conducted initially to understand the market demand for mobile charging, internet services and printing facility in rural Bangladesh. Financial analysis is conducted based on the initial market research and field research data. ‘Light of Hope’ – a tech-based educational organization has developed world’s lowest energy consuming multimedia classroom solution and installed the system in two primary schools in off-grid and semi-off-grid areas. Each school requires an investment of Euro 1370 that will generate yearly revenue of Euro 1093 from mobile charging, internet-based services and printing. The estimated ROI is 8 years which also makes it financially attractive. KEYWORDS Solar system, multimedia classroom, e-education, internet-based service, off-grid. INTRODUCTION While Bangladesh is on track to achieve universal primary education by the end of 2015 to meet the MDG target, quality of the education services and the outcomes are still very low. New global target or Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are giving higher priority on the quality of the education. Improving the quality of education requires long term commitment and large government funding for infrastructure development, teacher capacity development and inclusion of technology at the school level. Bangladesh government allocation for education in the budget is decreasing over the years. Government of Bangladesh spends only 1.8% of the GDP on education whereas countries like Vietnam spent 6.3%. (Habib, 2015) Investment on technology in education is still a far cry for Bangladesh because of its high initial investment and consequent operation and maintenance cost. Only 65% of the population has access to electricity while over 40,000 primary schools are located in off-grid areas and don’t have electricity connection. While lack of electricity poses a major treat in providing ICT-based quality education in rural areas, it also opens up an opportunity to develop school-based business model to ensure quality education and also cover the operational and maintenance cost of the provided technology to the schools. Light of Hope – tech-based non-profit develops an innovative solar-run multimedia classroom solution for rural off-grid schools capable to provide other services like mobile charging, 2 internet use, printing to develop revenue for schools. Light of Hope engineers developed the solar- run system and installed in 3 different schools. Market research on the various service demands is conducted. Financial analysis on the school business model shows promising signs as recovery of the initial investment and covering O&M costs seems viable. 32 METHODOLOGY The action research under Light of Hope’s ‘Digital School Project’ was initiated in March 2014. The research and operation team consists of engineers, educators, project management professional and university students. The overall work was divided into three major parts – development of the solar-run multimedia classroom solution, collection, development of educational contents and capacity building training to the teachers and finally developing the business model for the schools depending on the initial market survey conducted on mobile charging, internet and printing services at the community. Based on the initial solar-run classroom design development and available educational contents three pilot schools are supported. Experience and learning from the pilot is also being considered at the business model development and potential future expansion of the project. DIGITAL SCHOOL PROJECT The overall objective of Digital School project is to strengthen the capacity of the rural schools to provide quality education to the children. Light of Hope provides necessary technical, management and training supports to the local schools to develop their own revenue generation business model and quality education services. The development of the overall project is on-going and so far Light of Hope through its pilot schools realized the project’s tremendous opportunity to scale-up a sustainable country-wide model in Bangladesh that also has potential to be replicated in other developing and under-developed countries too. The different steps and components of the ‘Digital School Project’ are briefly covered along with the business model in sub-sequent sections. Formulation of Digital School project concept Coming back from their engineering background, the Light of Hope founders wanted to build a solar-system coupled with multimedia classroom solution with necessary e-educational contents to ensure the schools in off-grid rural areas have access to modern ICT-based education services. While designing of the system was the prime part of their task, making the whole system self- sustainable was another underlying objective. To the working team, the examples and business models for revenue generation from solar-system through services like mobile charging, solar lantern charging was available. What was absent however is how this revenue generation activities could be coupled with the school so that the school itself can generate revenue to cover the operational and maintenance cost of its multimedia classroom. Developing a low energy consuming multimedia classroom solution The multimedia classroom should have a laptop (computing device), projector, sound box, LED lights with enough battery backup to run the system for 4 hours. Light of Hope engineers looked into different low energy consuming products available in the market. Both the local and international markets are explored to have a comprehensive solution that is replicable in large scale. The comparison between a conventional multimedia classroom system and Light of Hope’s solution shows the difference in energy requirement for both the systems. 3 33 Because of this large difference in energy consumption, government and other organizations in Bangladesh has a perception that solar-run multimedia classroom requires high initial investment which is one of the main reasons why the off-grid schools are not considered to be digitalized. Light of Hope with their low energy consuming solutions proves that a very low initial investment (less than 500 euro) is sufficient to have a solar system to support the multimedia classroom. Develop e-education database for primary level The next step is to provide all the necessary educational contents at the laptop for the teachers to take the classes with multimedia projector. Although developing e-educational contents for secondary and higher secondary level was getting quite momentum in Bangladesh, finding educational contents for primary level was a daunting task. First of all, not many organizations were involved in this and not many contents were available. So Light of Hope employed 30 volunteers for 3 months to find out what is available in Bangladesh and then outside. Hundreds of videos on different science and other topics were downloaded from the internet and then translated into Bengali according to the National Curriculum. Currently Light of Hope posses the largest database of primary level contents in Bangladesh. It partnered with national and international NGOs like BRAC, Save the Children to collect many e-educational contents. All the contents are provided according to class, subject and topic. Capacity building of the rural school teachers In the rural areas, many teachers didn’t even see a laptop. Light of Hope provides basic computer skill training, teaches method on how to use e-educational materials in the classroom to stimulate interest and ensure engagement Refresher training is very important for the teachers to retain their knowledge of the initial training and to provide feedback on challenges to the Light of Hope team. Ensuring continuous technical support Light of Hope will provide rigorous and quick after-sale support for the solar system to the schools and other technical support for the laptops and other equipments so that any problem can be solved with minimum disruption at the classroom learning. In case of longer servicing time, Light of Hope retained a certain percentage of laptops (usually 10% of the total laptop in the schools) as backup. These are called ‘Buffer Laptop’. The buffer laptops already have all the software, e- educational materials needed to conduct the classroom teaching. The buffer laptops will be delivered to the schools after it’s identified that the school’s laptop requires more than a week to service. MAKING ‘DIGITAL SCHOOLS’ SUSTAINABLE Light of Hope’s self-sustainable primary school business model is unique in many ways. Each school will have one or several income generation activities supported by the solar system. 34 Different options are being considered to ensure regular revenue generation from the school to cover the operational and maintenance cost of the multimedia classroom system. The options for individual schools depend on the existing context of the locality, demand of different services and available support to continue the operation of the provided services. Services like mobile charging, internet use, printing etc. are few options those are under consideration. The generated revenue and the feasibility and likelihood of making the service profitable will reflect on the financial analysis of the investment and revenue. Light of Hope made several hypothetical scenarios to see the business viability of the provided services. Depending on several criteria like availability of the electricity at the locality, population, mobile and internet network, average household income at the surrounding locality, livelihood options for households etc. the revenue will vary from school to school. The market research conducted by Light of Hope team at the coastal village in Noakhali district of Bangladesh shows that in coastal off-grid areas an average adult who owns a mobile phone spends about 240 hours a year just to walk to the far market to charge his mobile. Villagers also travel to city to in expense of travel cost, service cost and time to get various internet based services provided by government. The existing market condition allows initiating several income generation activities like mobile charging, internet café where people can use internet and get other internet-based services, printing etc. are incorporated with the school’s solar system. These activities will earn enough revenue to cover the operational and replacement cost of the laptop, battery, other equipment and the salary of the operator. Financial analysis of Digital School intervention The financial analysis of the school intervention shows encouraging potential for covering the operation and maintenance cost and recover of the initial investment at the school in off-grid areas. Interventions like mobile charging, internet use, printing are considered. The initial investment, revenue and operation cost estimation for one school is provided below: The total initial investment for each school is 1370 euro. The budget for solar system includes cost for solar panel, battery, charge controller, LED lights and other components. Investment may slightly vary with price change of individual components. With continuous improvement of technology in terms of efficiency the price is likely to decrease in future. 35 The yearly operation cost is 840 euro which includes the salary of the local operator and the internet bill. The maintenance costs have different frequency ranging from 5 to 10 years for different components. Any maintenance cost before the projected frequency will be covered by the warranty service provided by the manufacturer or the local distributor. The detail of the operation and maintenance (O&M) cost for a single school is provided below in Table 3. The revenue from each school through various services depend on different factors like potential customer size, frequency of service, duration of service period in a year etc. Service charges for different services are estimated to be lower than the existing market price to attract more customers. Incentives like time savings and additional expenditure (e.g travel cost to the service point) will also ensure that the school will get regular customer. The yearly income for different services provided from the school is provided below in Table 4. The revenue model will vary depending on the locality. For example, in on-gird or semi-on-gird areas there will be no income from mobile charge as the households can charge their mobiles at their homes. Similarly in semi-urban areas, the demand for internet based services is likely to be higher compared to the rural areas. Light of Hope’s financial model shows the return on investment (ROI) is 8 year considering zero percent interest rate over the investment. However, there is a negative cash flow on 10th year due to replacement cost for laptop and battery. But after that period, the cash flow is always positive. The financial projection for the school is already encouraging and with increased revenue from services it could be financially attractive for government and other organizations to invest under social development project. 36 MAJOR CHALLENGES During last one year of intervention Light of Hope faces various challenges from programme design point of view and the intervention strategy. Initial challenges were to design the compatible low-cost solar system design, finding and developing educational materials etc. Capacity development of the local teachers on using the laptop and taking class with educational contents is still a major challenge. An appropriate training design and the cost for an effective training are very high. Funding for the capacity building training of the teachers is inadequate and financially non-returnable although it contributes significantly on the improvement of the education service delivered at the school. Analyzing the existing market demand for the services provided from the school is another challenge and requires caution during the investment. Training up the local operator to provide various services also required for customer satisfaction which is directly linked with the potential revenue generation. Monitoring and evaluation of the multimedia classroom activity is another area of concern. In order to ensure that regular class is taking place using the multimedia setup, Light of Hope is planning to develop software that will keep track of the number of hours the teachers are actually using the setup which will be automatically uploaded to the central server online. This will significantly reduce the monitoring cost of the project. For evaluating the outcome of the digital school, Light of Hope is developing a standard tool that will check the improvement of children learning over the period of time. CONCLUSION Delivering quality education comes at a cost with high investment on infrastructure, technology, capacity building of teachers etc. which is often difficult for a government in a developing country. Light of Hope intended to develop a low-cost solution with potential income generation activity from the school to reduce that burden on investment and operation and maintenance cost. The first phase of the intervention is already completed with a complete setup with 3 pilot schools currently running proves the system’s efficiency. The second phase will start soon with income generating services in school and the financial analysis looks attractive. Once successfully completed in 37 Bangladesh, Light of Hope’s Digital School project can be replicated in other developing countries with similar context, especially in South-Asia and Africa. REFERENCE 1. Habib, W. B. (2015, June 05). The Daily Star. Retrieved July 4, 2015, from http://www.thedailystar.net: http://www.thedailystar.net/business/allocation-education-still- inadequate-92479 http://www.thedailystar.net/business/allocation-education-still-inadequate-92479 http://www.thedailystar.net/business/allocation-education-still-inadequate-92479 38 Scheme for Promoting Biodiesel Production in Indonesia Fumi Harahap Division of Energy and Climate Studies KTH Royal Institute of Technology School of Industrial Engineering and Management Brinellvägen 68, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden Email: harahap@kth.se This paper is submitted for participation in workshop "Addressing Resilience and Sustainability in Energy Management - 25 years of development oriented studies at the University of Flensburg“ 21-25 September 2015 ABSTRACT In the last decade, the Government of Indonesia has put considerable effort to reduce enormous burden to the country’s economy caused by energy subsidy. The past subsidy structure had failed to execute the social considerations idea to provide basic need at a price affordable to the poor, on the contrary benefiting mostly the richest. Phasing out fossil fuel subsidy becomes important agenda of the government for better- targeted subsidies and providing other social supports in particular for the low-income groups. Since January 2015, GoI maintains subsidy for diesel, kerosene and electricity while eliminating subsidy for gasoline. As a net oil importer country, fuel subsidy cost correlates with US Dollar (USD) – Indonesian rupiah (IDR) exchange rate due to the reflection of domestic market price to international price in USD. In an unwell adjusted retail price, a weakening of IDR increases the domestic market price, results to higher subsidy cost. Development of national biodiesel industry becomes urgent to restrict higher price imported fossil fuel-based diesel for domestic use. This study evaluates current policy instruments governing promotion of biodiesel production for domestic use. It performs economic analysis to compare biodiesel production cost against diesel retail price and biodiesel producer price. Sensitivity analysis is performed to investigate feasibility of Crude Palm Oil Supporting Fund (CSF) that may become available to promote biodiesel expansion at high feedstock price while meeting biodiesel target in 2015. The results show that biodiesel industry is currently benefited from attractive biodiesel producer price and low feedstock price. To certain extent of CPO price, CSF is feasible to cover the price gap between biodiesel production cost and diesel price at high CPO price. The study indicates that the feasibility would depend on government decision to allocate the fund. While the adoption of CFS is expected to boost biodiesel production for domestic use, decline in export volume appears to increase uncertainty of fund available. Key words: biodiesel production cost, crude palm oil price, diesel retail price, subsidy INTRODUCTION Energy subsidy has been place in Indonesia since the late 1970s, affected by first oil price shock [1], [2]. Constitutional Article 33 (3) specifies that the natural resources is controlled by the state and shall be used to the greatest benefit of the people. This serves as prerequisite to subsiding energy below the market prices [1]. Between 2007 and 2014, fossil fuel subsidies have consumed on average of 11% of state expenditure or 70% from total subsidy allocation [3], see Figure 2, demonstrating considerable burden for the country’s economy. The social considerations idea to mailto:harahap@kth.se 39 provide basic need at a price affordable to the poor, was distorted to benefiting mostly the richest [4], [5]. Figure 2 Fuel subsidy expenditure Source: [3] Note: Exchange rate 2010 constant value USD 1 = IDR 8,991 [6] The GDP growth of 5.5% in 2013 [3] and rapid growing of middle class has led to high fuel demand in Indonesia. This has forced Government of Indonesia (GoI) to allocate significant amount of money to cover the discrepancy between international and domestic fuel prices. Until the end of 2014, GoI provided subsidy for petroleum products i.e. gasoline (premium), diesel (minyak solar) and kerosene (minyak bakar); and electricity. After that, only subsidy for diesel, kerosene and electricity are appeared in the state budget (Figure 3). The country energy subsidy policy is mostly concentrated on consumer price in the form of under- pricing of energy, although tax incentive for producer exists in few cases [7]. The price discrepancy between domestic retail price and economic price10 is paid to Pertamina – the state owned oil enterprise that receives mandate to provide and distribute subsidised fuels in Indonesia [4]. Figure 3 draws subsidy commodities and the subsidy costs reflected in the national budget. 10 The economic price consists of four components: (1) the border wholesale price of refined products referring to Mid Oil Platt’s Singapore (MOPS); (2) costs of transportation, storage and distribution; (3) value added tax and fuel tax; and (4) profit margin of retail stations.” [4] 8% 5% 10% 10% 11% 12% 16% 16% 60% 47% 62% 67% 73% 81% 87% 85% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 M il li o n U S D Cost of energy subsidy (mill USD) Central state expenditure (mill USD) % of fuel subsidy to national expenditure % of fuel subsidy to total subsidy 40 Figure 3 Cost of fuel and non-fuel subsides reflected in national budget 2012-2015 Source: [3], [8] Note: * 2015 revised budget following the presidential election in October 2014 The massive subsidies reduce government’s fiscal space to promote investment in infrastructure and human capital and also ability to provide better targeted subsidies and other social supports in particular for the low-income groups [4]. Dartanto (2013) outlines few studies that discussed the adverse impact of cutting subsidies which is mostly perceived by the low-income groups. Fuel spending demonstrates 5% of total spending of the poorest households [5]. An increase of $0.25 per liter in the price of fuel products reduced the household real income by 17.3% in Ghana and 12.1% in Jordan [9] causes reduction of the purchasing power. The adverse impact can be minimised through effective compensation e.g. direct cash transfer, transferring fuel subsidies from middle income to poor households [4], [10]. Indonesia energy agenda focuses on energy independence by diverting the export volume to domestic supply and optimises the energy balance between fossil and non-fossil fuel. The future energy matrix remains with the domination of fossil energy despite the spur of renewable share to at least 23% in 2025 and 31% in 2050 (see Figure 4). Reduce fossil oil consumption is an important agenda of the ruling government together with phasing out energy subsidy. Liquid biofuels, viz. bioethanol and biodiesel, offer attractive solution to substitute fossil oil, expected to contribute 5% in renewable energy share by 2025. Biofuel mandate (for transport, industry, commercial and power sectors) in the form of progressive blending rate to fuel products have been enacted since 2008 through the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (MEMR) Regulation 32/2008 jo. 12/2015. The regulation was formulated to restrict higher price oil imports for domestic use which had caused current budget deficit [11]. 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 2012 2013 2014 2015 2015* Fuel i.e. petroleum, biofuel, LPG Electricity Food Fertilizer Seed Public Service Obligation Lending program Tax 41 2013 Total primary demand: 130 MTOE 2025 Total primary demand: 400 MTOE 2050 Total primary demand: 1,000 MTOE Figure 4 Indonesia energy matrix present and future The figure excludes biomass for non-energy used Source: [6], National Energy Policy (Government Regulation 79/2014) The promotion of industrial scale production and the use of liquid biofuels in Indonesia are backed up by financial support from the government through various policies. Despite the establishment of a significant biodiesel production in the country in the past few years, the potential is much larger since Indonesia is responsible for more than half of the world’s palm oil production totalling 29 Mton of crude palm oil (CPO) in 2014 [12]. Nevertheless, meeting these targets has been challenging. In 2014, approximately 1.1 billion liters were used domestically and 1.3 billion liters were exported [13]. That resulted to 6.7% of domestic biodiesel blend rate which had failed to meet the 10% target for transport sector in 2014. Currently 13% of total CPO produced in Indonesia is being used for biodiesel production in the country [12], [14]. A domestic use of a larger share of the CPO presently being export could contribute to reduce dependence on fossil fuel import [15]. MEMR Regulation 12/2025 aims at achieving 30% biodiesel blending rate for the targeted sectors by 2025, equivalent to 11 folds from domestic biodiesel consumption in 2014, illustrating increased ambition to biodiesel deployment. Biodiesel production is vulnerable to oil and feedstock prices. In 2007, decline of oil price and the spike of palm oil feedstock price caused 17 biodiesel companies to have reduced or temporarily suspended their production and led to deviation of biofuel production cost proportionate to petroleum fuel and losing government’s will to support the industry [2], [16]. Setting attractive price mechanism could create supportive environment for biofuels which could lead to materialising the mandate. Through MEMR Regulation 3239/2015 government regulates monthly biodiesel market price, subject to evaluation of at least every 6 months’ time. Further encouragement to divert export volume to domestic supply is by imposing levy to palm oil industries exporting the products, named as CPO Supporting Fund (CSF). The fund is partly dedicated to cover the gap between diesel retail price and biodiesel producer price (Presidential Regulation 61/2015). The question is then whether the existing policy instruments governing biodiesel production including the price structure, retrench state expenditure can be confirmed. This study aims at examining both aforementioned schemes that promotes biodiesel in the country. It performs price-cost comparison of: (1) biodiesel production cost presented by the life cycle cost, (2) biodiesel producer price and (3) diesel retail price. Also, it assesses the impact of CPO price Rene wable energ y, 5% Oil, 46% Coal, 31% Natur al gas, 19% Rene wable energ y, 23% Oil, 25% Coal, 30% Natur al gas, 22% Rene wable energ y, 31% Oil, 20% Coal, 25% Natur al gas, 24% 42 fluctuation to biodiesel production cost to estimate the price gap between biodiesel production cost and diesel retail price to evaluate the feasibility of CSF scheme to cover that gap. The remaining chapters are organised as follows. Part 2 describes materials and method used in this article comprises the historical of energy subsidy reform to understand the level of success and the government eagerness to overcome budget deficit; projection of biodiesel consumption; policy instruments to stimulate biodiesel production at different level of its supply chain; and mathematical methods used in cost analysis. Part 3 discusses main findings, performs cost sensitivity and analyses the government support. Part 5 provides some concluding remarks. MATERIALS AND METHOD Energy Subsidy Reform The urgency of gradually removing the fuel subsidies was first highlighted in the National Development Programme 2000-2004. Using that as a basis, GoI took the first initiative on deregulating the subsidy from domestic retail fuel prices and at the same time adopting scheme to limit the risk of increase in poverty due to phasing out the fuel subsidies targeting the low income groups, through the adoption of Presidential Decree 135/2000. The decree enacted compensation fund in form of direct cash distributed to low income households, recorded the state spending of IDR million 800 in 2000 and IDR trillion 4.4 in 2003 [17]. Since 2000, various adjustments of retail fuel prices to the fluctuation of international prices are undertaken to reduce subsidy costs (see Figure 5), with numerous level of success [1], [4]. Also, GoI continues to adopt the compensation programme for the poor which includes cash transfer, health insurance, education subsidies and also rural infrastructure development between 2005 to 2008 [4]. Figure 5 Domestic fuel prices of gasoline, kerosene and diesel oil and Indonesia Crude Oil Price (ICP) 2000 – 2013 Source: [6] The subsidy costs in Indonesia is vastly exposed to oil market price and exchange rate fluctuations [1]. In the high oil price, government has to bear the incremental cost, while in the low oil price, government cuts the retail price. The recent momentous subsidy cut on gasoline fuel in November 2014 demonstrates government’s strong willingness to allocate the state budget for the better 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 U S D p er b a rr el Gasoline Kerosene Diesel oil (ADO) Crude price (ICP) 43 purpose. The adoption of incremental change approach in subsidy reform by GoI, demonstrates the promotion of a better allocating subsidy scheme. Figure 2 shows 44% reduction of fuel subsidy and 30% increase of non-fuel subsidy. Table 3 summarises subsidy reforms since the past 15 years. Table 3 Summary of subsidy reforms since the past 15 years 1998 Fuel price hike as a consequence of global oil crisis, led to riots. This was coincided with government reformation. 2000 The National Development Program 2000-2004 indicated the need to gradually cut the fuel subsidies that are false targeted by 2004. In the program, government introduced the mechanism to compensate the fuel subsidy cut targeting low-income households (Presidential Decree 135/2000). The cash transfer realisation started later in 2005. 2001 Presidential Decree 45/2001 deregulated the retail fuel prices for industries to gradually equalising to the level of international prices. 2003 Alignment of domestic petroleum prices to international market prices led to public protest due to poor communication. Government had to roll back most of the increase. 2005 Two large fuel price hikes in February and October (adoption of Presidential Regulation 22/2005 and 55/2005), respectively more than double for gasoline and nearly triple for diesel compared to 2003. Presidential Instruction 12/2005 defined the mechanism of cash transfer (Bantuan Langsung Tunai) distribution. Compensation to mitigate the impact of subsidy cut in the form of cash payment of USD 10/month to 19 million low-income individuals. The program continues until now at the level of USD 20/month. 2008 Phased out subsidy to large industrial electricity consumers and subsidy is restricted for public transport and motorcycle. Gasoline price rose up by 25% while diesel by 21% compared to 2005. 2010 House of representative agreed to raise fuel subsidy budget. 2013 The MEMR Regulation 1/2013 controls subsidised fuel by prohibiting the use in government fleet vehicles, mining activities and plantation activities (except community and individual owned plantation). 2014 Significant fuel price adjustment following the presidential election. Gasoline price rose up by 23% while diesel by 26% compared to 2005. Relatively small community resistance, due to good communication and supports from the economists. 2015 Effective from January 2015 GoI only maintains subsidy for diesel and kerosene (MEMR Regulation 39/2014). Fuel prices have been adjusted four times between January to March 2015 to the global oil price. After the inauguration of the new government in October 2014, the initial state budget was revised to accommodate their prioritised programs. Total state expenditure presents the reduction of 2.2% (or IDR 44,594 mill ~ USD 3.747 mill11) from the initial budget. The reduction comes from savings made of phasing out fuel subsidies totalling IDR 186,267 mill ~ USD 15.653 mill, of which 65% (or IDR 120,475 mill ~ USD 10.124 mill) is reserved for prioritised programs i.e. (1) development of key sectors e.g. food, energy, maritime, tourism, industry; (2) fulfilment of basic citizens obligations e.g. education and health; (3) reduction of gap in income distribution of residents; (4) infrastructure development to improve connectivity [3]. 11 Exchange rate 1 USD = 11,900 IDR [3] 44 Future Biodiesel Consumption The recent regulation defines increase of 2.5 and 7.8 folds respectively in 2015 and 2020 from current biodiesel domestic use, see Table 4. Green line drawn in Figure 3 presents consumption target from 2012 to 2014 which were significantly above the actual consumption (green bar), caused by high biodiesel export volume (red bar). Table 4 Projected Diesel consumption, biodiesel consumption and CPO use 2015 – 2025 Year 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 (1) Diesel consumption (bill liters) 32.7 34.3 35.9 37.6 39.4 41.2 43.2 45.3 47.4 49.7 52 54.5 (2) Biodiesel blending rate (%) 15% 20% 23% 25% 28% 30% 30% 30% 30% 30% 30% (3) Biodiesel (bill liters) 1.6 5.6 7.8 9.2 10.7 12.4 14.1 14.8 15.5 16.2 17 17.8 (4) CPO use (mill ton) 3.2 6.2 8.6 10.2 11.9 13.7 15.6 16.4 17.1 17.9 18.8 19.7 Note: (2) Biodiesel blending rate is based on MEMR Regulation 12/2015, highlighted value is stated in the regulation, others are interpolated. (3) & (4) calculated based on diesel consumption data from [18] using 5% of annual increase. Biodiesel consumption applies proxy of blending rate to diesel consumption according to energy content of Diesel (35.1 MJ/liter) and Biodiesel (32.2 MJ/liter). Figure 6 Past, present and future of biodiesel domestic, export, and CPO use (2010-2025) Fiscal Support to Biodiesel I follow classification of biofuel subsidies outlined by Dillon (2008): (1) subsidies for production of biofuels in the form i.e. subsidies to intermediate inputs (e.g. feedstock crop, energy, water), subsidies to value-adding factors (e.g. labour, capital, land), production linked payments and tax credits, tax exemptions and market price support; (2) subsidies for consumption such as subsidies for the purchase of biofuel e.g. output linked-support. Following the enactment of Presidential Instruction 1/2006 on mandatory supply of biofuel, major subsidies policies and incentives put forward are as follows. 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 C P O ( m il l to n ) B io d ie se l V o lu m e ( b il l li te r s) Biodiesel domestic use Biodiesel export Biodiesel (past) target Biodiesel future target CPO use CPO for future demand 45 (1) Production Numerous subsidies measures to intermediate inputs are in place to promote the development of biofuel feedstock plantation such as improve seedling quality, training, research and development. In the context of fiscal incentive, Ministry of Finance (MoF) Regulation 117/2006 and 79/2007 jo. 198/2010 adopts special lending rate for biofuel development and plantation revitalisation. GoI covers the gap between the market rate and the farmer’s rate. The rate for oil palm is 7% for 5 years whereas the average present market rate is 18% (as of May 201512). According to data from Bank Indonesia, IDR 1 trillion (USD 110 million) was allocated for lending rate subsidies in the 2007 financial year [2]. Dillon (2008) calculated that total subsidy spent for biofuel development from the state budget was IDR 15 trillion ~ USD 1.6 billion. (2) Consumption The agricultural commodity prices spike in end of 2007 led to uneconomic biofuel production. GoI instructed Pertamina to continue biofuel blends and to set similar price as subsidised petroleum fuels without providing the price gap creating major burden to Pertamina. They had to suffer IDR 360 billion (US$ 40 million) from biofuel blending from 2006 to 2008. Consequently, Pertamina cuts biodiesel content down to 1% in May 2008 [2]. High CPO prices together with inadequate government support had interfered industry’s operation. In May 2015, through Presidential Regulation 61/2015 GoI imposes export levy to strategic agriculture industries, including oil palm as indicated above, named as CSF. This compulsory fund charges palm oil companies for exporting CPO or its derivative products. The unprocessed CPO is subject to payment of 50 USD/ton whereas refined palm oil (including biodiesel) is 20 USD/ton. Table 5 indicates type of palm oil products and the export levy included in the analysis. Smallholder industry is exempted from this obligation. CSF will be allocated to upstream and downstream palm oil business such as for capacity building, research and development as well as for biofuels development. GoI appoints an agency to manage CSF’s collection, management, allocation and distribution. As interpreted from the formal policy, CSF is an additional obligation on top of custom duty but can partly relieve company’s income tax. CSF’s utilisation in the context of biofuel development would close the gap between diesel retail price and biodiesel producer price. Table 5 Palm oil products and CSF tariff Palm Oil Products CSF Tariff (USD/ton) Unprocessed CPO including kernel oil, olein, stearin, kernel olein, kernel stearin 50 Refined, Bleached and Deodorized (RBD) palm oil including kernel oil, olein, stearin, kernel olein, kernel stearin, biodiesel 20 Source: MoF Regulation 114/2015, [12] 12 Bank Indonesia prime lending rate: http://www.bi.go.id/id/perbankan/suku-bunga-dasar/Default.aspx as of May 2015 http://www.bi.go.id/id/perbankan/suku-bunga-dasar/Default.aspx 46 This structure implies that currently direct fiscal support for biodiesel expansion at consumption level is independent from national budget. Definition To meet the objective of the study, I review recent formal policy, government planning documents, scientific papers and information from the trusted websites. The analysis performed in this study starts by estimating biodiesel production cost using secondary data then compares it with diesel retail price and biodiesel producer price. Biodiesel production cost is reflected by life cycle cost defined as “an economic model for pricing equipment and processes over the life span of a production plant” [19]. The life cycle cost of biodiesel is predominantly built from study conducted by Ong et al (2012) on life cycle cost of palm biodiesel production in Malaysia. This article adopts mathematical formulas and a number of economic indicators used in that study. Indonesia data is applied appropriately to better reflect the country condition. Diesel retail price refers to price paid by the consumer to retailer such as Pertamina, Shell. Biodiesel is sold to consumer in the form of blend fuel with diesel. Biodiesel producer price indicates price paid by biodiesel blender such as Pertamina to biodiesel producer. Price gap is defined as the gap between biodiesel production cost and diesel retail price. Life Cycle Palm Biodiesel This article considers feedstock procurement as the initial activity in the life cycle analysis and ends at biodiesel consumption. Life cycle stage can be divided into three: agricultural, production and consumption processes (see Figure 7). Generally, biodiesel is produced through transesterification process. The process involves a short chain of alcohol e.g. ethanol or methanol and could be with the help of catalyst such as sodium hydroxide to accelerate the reaction rate [20], [21]. It converts ester that separates the triglycerides, takes the glycerol of the triglyceride and replaces it with alkyl radical of the alcohol used [20]. The process results fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) and glycerol as by-product. Figure 7 Life cycle analysis diagram for palm biodiesel production Source: adopted from [19] 47 The following assumption is applied in the study: approximately 100 tons of CPO reacts with 10.7 tons of methanol to produce 98 tons of biodiesel and 9.85 tons of glycerol as the only by-product counted in the analysis [19]. Method and Data to Calculate Life Cycle Cost The article adopts method applied by Ong et al (2012) in estimating palm biodiesel production cost in Malaysia. Nomenclature BP by product credit (USD) LCC life cycle cost (USD) CC capital cost (USD) MC maintenance cost (USD) CE biodiesel conversion efficiency MR maintenance ratio (%) CPO crude palm oil n project life time (year) d depreciation ratio (%) OC operating cost (USD) FC feedstock cost (USD/ton) OR operating rate (USD/ton) FP feedstock price (USD/ton) PC annual biodiesel production capacity (ton/year) FU feedstock consumption (ton) RC replacement cost GCF glycerol conversion factor from feedstock oil r interest rate (%) GP glycerol price (USD/kg) SV salvage value (USD) i year The cost model is developed into six groups: LCC = Capital cost + Operating cost + Maintenance cost + Feedstock cost – Salvage value – by product credit In the form of present value model, 𝐿𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶 + ∑ 𝑂𝐶𝑖 + 𝑀𝐶𝑖 + 𝐹𝐶𝑖 (1 + 𝑟)𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 − 𝑆𝑉 (1 + 𝑟)𝑛 − ∑ 𝐵𝑃𝑖 (1 + 𝑟)𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 (1) Capital cost Capital costs take into account the required land area, building construction, equipment and instrumentation required for the plant. The land acquisition cost varies widely. Ong et al. (2012) indicates capital cost per unit capacity of 240 mill USD/ton, whereas Indonesian Oil Palm Research Institute suggests 144 mill USD/ton13. Data from Indonesia Investment Coordinating Board (IICB) shows wide range of capital cost per unit capacity between 75 to 366 mill USD/ton14. For this article, the median value of IICB data, 160 USD/ton, is applied. That represent plant capacity, PC = 200 ktons with estimated capital cost, CC = 32 mill USD. (2) Operating cost 13 http://www.datacon.co.id/Biofuel2008Ind.html , accessed on 12/9/2015 14 http://unisosdem.org/article_detail.php?aid=8370&coid=1&caid=28&gid=2, accessed on 12/9/2015 http://www.datacon.co.id/Biofuel2008Ind.html http://unisosdem.org/article_detail.php?aid=8370&coid=1&caid=28&gid=2 48 Operating cost includes industry overhead costs, waste water and sludge treatment processing, all other material and energy flows except of the CPO feedstock. The cost reflects the annual operating rate and plant capacity. 𝑂𝐶 = ∑ 𝑂𝑅 𝑥 𝑃𝐶 (1 + 𝑟)𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 (3) Maintenance cost The annual maintenance cost is assumed as a constant proxy over the project lifetime, MR = MR = 2% of capital cost [19]. 𝑀𝐶 = ∑ 𝑀𝑅 𝑥 𝐶𝐶 (1 + 𝑟)𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 (4) Feedstock cost Recent average CPO price in August 2015 is applied in the analysis. It is based on daily palm oil prices published by Malaysian Palm Oil Council is FP = 500 USD/ton. Annual feedstock consumption (FU) is determined by plant capacity (PC) and the conversion efficiency or plant capacity factor (CE). 𝐹𝑈 = 𝑃𝐶 𝐶𝐸 𝐹𝐶 = ∑ 𝐹𝑃 𝑥 𝐹𝑈 (1 + 𝑟)𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 (5) Salvage value The salvage value is defined as assets value at the end of the project lifetime by considering the depreciation rate (d). In this study, it involves replacement cost (RC) instead of initial capital cost (CC). 𝑑 = (𝑟(1 + 𝑟)𝑛) ((1 + 𝑟)𝑛 − 1) 𝑆𝑉𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝐶 𝑥 (1 − 𝑑)𝑛−1 (1 + 𝑟)𝑛 (6) By product credit Glycerol is the by-product credit that can be sold. Calculation is based on setting a fixed price for glycerol with production determined by a plant capacity to glycerol conversion factor. 𝐵𝑃 = ∑ 𝐺𝑃𝑥𝐺𝐶𝐹𝑥𝑃𝐶𝑥1000 (1 + 𝑟)𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 (7) Sensitivity analysis Sensitivity analysis examines outputs performance responding the change in key assumptions on which the projections are based. This article highlights the effect of CPO price to the level of 49 biodiesel production cost particularly due to biodiesel vulnerability to feedstock price as described in Part 0. Table 6 Summary of economic data and indicators Item Data Project lifetime 20 years Plant capacity 200 ktons Capital cost 32 mill USD Operating rate 280 USD/ton of FAME Maintenance cost 2% of capital cost annually Replacement cost 10 mill USD Taxes 10% Crude palm oil price 500 USD/ton Glycerol price 0.25 USD/kg Interest rate 8% Biodiesel conversion efficiency (based on energy content) 92% Glycerol conversion factor 0.0985 Biodiesel Producer Price In the national market, MEMR Decree 3239/2015 enacts recent of biodiesel market price as follows: Biodiesel producer price = CPO market price + 125 USD/metric ton x 870 kg/m3 + transportation cost CPO market price is based on publication of average 1 month price of Kharisma Pemasaran Bersama Nusantara unit Belawan dan Dumai before value added tax. 125 USD/metric ton is the conversion factor of CPO to biodiesel. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Biodiesel Life Cycle Cost Life cycle cost (LCC) is calculated for 200 ktons biodiesel plant using data summarised in Table 6. Results are presented in Table 7. CPO cost accounts for the largest share in final biodiesel production cost which is 66% or 0.232 USD/liter followed by operating cost at 34% or 0.119 USD/liter. The structure of the unit cost closely follows previous studies which accounts feedstock cost 70-80% of cost of biodiesel’s production [19], [22]. The sale of glycerol product contributes to 48 mill USD over the life of the project. LCC of palm biodiesel after tax is 0.385 USD/liter. At CPO price of 500 USD/ton biodiesel presents price competitiveness because the production cost is below diesel retail price and biodiesel producer price of 0.424 USD/liter15 and 0.544 USD/liter16 respectively. Table 7 Total production cost of biodiesel production plant 15 Diesel retail price as of August 2015 is 5,900 IDR/liter. GoI provides subsidy 1,000 IDR/liter. OANDA exchange rate of 31 August 2015 1 USD = 13,900 IDR 16 Biodiesel producer price excludes transportation cost 50 Item Life cycle cost (USD) Unit cost (USD/liter of biodiesel) Total capital investment 32,000,000 0,007 Feedstock cost 1,070,239,050 0.233 Operating cost 549,816,255 0.120 Maintenance cost 6,283,614 0.001 Salvage value - 278,698 - 6x10-5 By product credit - 48,354,376 - 0.011 Total LCC 1,609,705,845 before tax: 0.350 after tax: 0.385 Figure 8 Distribution of unit cost of palm biodiesel Sensitivity Analysis This study performs sensitivity to one key assumption which is CPO price. The objectives are: (1) to analyse at what level of CPO price, biodiesel would remain competitive to diesel; (2) to estimate the price gap between biodiesel cost and diesel retail price. Figure 9 draws world CPO and crude oil prices development and the future forecast. To date, CPO price has been more than two folds below the price in 2011. CPO data is used to determine assumption for sensitivity analysis. 0.007 0.233 0.120 0.001 -0.011 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 Capital cost Feedstock cost Operating cost Maintenance cost Selvage value By product credit U n it c o st ( U S D /l it er ) 51 Figure 9 Development of world palm oil price 2010 – 2019 (USD/tons) Source: EIU Economic and Commodity Forecast, July 201517 Three different CPO prices are examined: (1) Base price (BP) = 500 USD/ton presents to date price which is the average CPO price in August 2015 published by Malaysian Palm Oil Council; (2) Price sensitivity 1 (PS1) = 587 USD/ton presents the average price in Figure 9 from 2015 until 2019, reflecting future price; (3) Price sensitivity 2 (PS2) = 940 USD/ton presents the average price in Figure 9 from 2010 until 2014, reflecting high CPO price. Table 8 Results of sensitivity analysis BP CPO = 500 USD/ton PS1 CPO = 587 USD/ton PS2 CPO = 940 USD/ton LCC palm biodiesel after tax (USD/liter) 0.385 0.430 0.610 Diesel retail price (USD/liter) 0.424 0.424 0.424 Price gap (USD/liter) - 0.039 0.005 0.186 The exercise shows that at PS1 and PS2, biodiesel production cost is more than diesel retail price; hence price gap is expected. Assume that biodiesel producer price should at least cover the production cost, therefore biodiesel producer price is equal to the production cost. Fiscal support is required to cover the gap to maintain biodiesel competitiveness, respectively 0.005 USD/liter and 0.186 USD/liter for PS1 and PS2. 17http://knoema.com/wxgcxde/commodity-prices-forecast-2015-2019-charts-and- tables?variable=Palm%20oil%20(US%24%2Ftonne) 901 1,125 999 857 821 656 592 570 565 555 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 W o rl d c ru d e o il p ri ce ( U S D /b a rr el ) W o rl d p a lm o il p ri ce ( U S D /t o n s) World palm oil price Crude oil price 52 Evaluate the feasibility of CSF fund to promote biodiesel expansion This part assesses the feasibility of CSF fund that may become available to cover the price gap at high CPO price to meet biodiesel target in 2015. Table 9 Subsidy costs at high CPO price PS1 CPO = 587 USD/ton PS2 CPO = 940 USD/ton (1) Biodiesel consumption in 2015 (bill liters) 5.6 5.6 (2) Price gap (USD/liter) 0.005 0.186 (3) Total subsidy (mill USD) = (1) x (2) 29.21 1,041.70 Based on data presented in Table 5, I calculate the amount of CSF that may become available generated from palm oil products export volume. The fund is calculated based on palm oil data in 2012. Table 10 Calculation of CSF that may become available Palm oil products Export volume in 2012 (ton) Volume available to generate CSF (ton) CSF tariff (USD/ton) **Possible CSF available (mill USD) (1) (2) (3) (4) Crude palm oil 7,262,831 1,814,414* 50 90.72 Solid fractions of unrefined palm oil not chemically modified 221,841 221,841 50 11.09 Unsolid fractions of unrefined palm oil not chemically modified 591,983 591,983 50 29.60 Solid fractions of refined palm oil packing of a net weight_20 kg 149,083 149,083 20 2.98 Solid fractions of refined palm oil packing of a net weight> 20 kg 1,110,308 1,110,308 20 22.21 Unsolid fractions of refined palm oil packing of a net weight_20 kg 742,543 742,543 20 14.85 Unsolid fractions of refined palm oil packing of a net weight> 20 kg 8,772,249 8,772,249 20 175.44 Total 18,850,838 13,402,421 346.90 Note: (1) Data on export volume is derived from [12] (2) *CPO volume available to generate CSF is deducted by CPO volume to satisfy biodiesel target in 2015, equal to 5.6 bill liters (see Table 4). Part of that is already fulfilled by the consumption in 2012 (0.67 bill liters), hence 4.93 bill liters of additional biodiesel needs to be produced. CPO volume available to generate CSF = 7,262,831 ton – [(5.6 bill liters - 0.67 bill liters) / 905 liters FAME/ton CPO x 109)] = 1,814,414 ton (3) CSF Tariff is based on MoF Regulation 114/2015 (4) Possible CSF available = (2) x (3) 53 The analysis indicates sufficient fund available to cover subsidy costs at CPO price 587 USD/ton, but inadequate at the level of 940 USD/ton. The former implies to utilising 8% of total CSF that may become available. As explained in Part 0, CSF will be distributed for various downstream and upstream biodiesel industries. The availability of CSF for subsidising the price gap would highly depend on GoI’s priorities of allocating the fund. Using backward calculation, I calculated the ceiling price for CPO assuming 50% of CSF is available to cover the price gap. The calculation results to CPO price of 637 USD/ton and biodiesel production cost of of 0.455 USD/liter (after tax). With similar calculation method, biodiesel production cost is equal to diesel price (price gap = 0) at CPO price of 576.82 USD/ton. CONCLUDING REMARKS This paper points out the urgent need to develop domestic biodiesel aiming at restricting import of high price crude oil which had caused current budget deficit. Biodiesel industry is currently benefited from attractive biodiesel producer price and low feedstock price making it competitive to diesel. High feedstock price creates uncertainty to the level of support needed. The sensitivity analysis particularly highlights the feasibility of newly introduced scheme, CSF, to cover the price gap between biodiesel production cost and diesel price at high CPO price. The study indicates that the feasibility would depend on government decision to allocate the fund. While the adoption of CFS is expected to boost biodiesel production for domestic use, decline in export volume appears to increase uncertainty of fund available. This paper primarily looks at different level of feedstock price affecting government level of support. Future analysis should include the following parameters such as crude oil price, world CPO price and its derivatives products and international demand to palm oil commodity to acknowledging complexity of biodiesel economy. Note: Quoting information from this paper is subject to consulting with author. 54 REFERENCES [1] IEA, “Indonesia 2015.” 2015. [2] H. S. Dillon, T. Laan, and H. S. Dillon, BIOFUELS - AT WHAT COST ? Government support for ethanol and biodiesel in Indonesia, no. December. 2008. [3] GoI, “Nota Keuangan dan Rancangan Anggaran Pendapatan dan Belanja Negara Perubahan 2015,” 2015. [4] T. 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[11] Indonesia Investments, “Palm Oil Update Indonesia : Subsidies for Biofuel to Lift CPO Prices Today ’ s Headlines,” no. March 2014, pp. 2014–2016, 2015. [12] MoA, “The Crop Estate Statistics of Indonesia 2012-2014,” 2013. [13] T. Wright, “Indonesia Biofuels Annual 2014,” no. 25, 2014. [14] MoA, Statistik Pertanian 2014. 2014. [15] BPPT, Indonesia Energy Outlook 2014. 2014. [16] W. Caroko, H. Komarudin, and K. Obidzinski, “Policy and institutional frameworks for the development of palm oil–based biodiesel in Indonesia,” 2011. [17] BPKP, “Audit PKPS-BBM Berlanjut Hingga 2004,” 2004. [18] T. Wright and A. Rahmanulloh, “Indonesia Biofuels Annual Report 2015,” 2015. [19] H. C. Ong, T. M. I. Mahlia, H. H. Masjuki, and D. Honnery, “Life cycle cost and sensitivity analysis of palm biodiesel production,” Fuel, vol. 98, pp. 131–139, Aug. 2012. 55 [20] M. Canakci and H. Sanli, “Biodiesel production from various feedstocks and their effects on the fuel properties.,” Journal of industrial microbiology & biotechnology, vol. 35, no. 5, pp. 431–41, May 2008. [21] T. Silalertruksa and S. H. Gheewala, “Environmental sustainability assessment of palm biodiesel production in Thailand,” Energy, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 306–314, Jul. 2012. [22] K. R. Jegannathan, C. Eng-Seng, and P. Ravindra, “Economic assessment of biodiesel production: Comparison of alkali and biocatalyst processes,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 745–751, Jan. 2011. 56 Local Officials’ Concerns of Climate Change Issues in China: A Case from Jiangsu Qiying Hu Jiangsu Low Carbon Development Project, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH Changjianglu No. 9 Block Bld. B2, Room 704 Dengfuxiang 18 210018 Nanjing, Jiangsu Prov. PR China Email: qiying.hu@giz.de ABSTRACT To successfully implement climate policy at different levels, local officials should have a better understanding of climate change issues. Using 191 valid questionnaires collected in 13 district cities in Jiangsu, China, this study found that local officials are aware of climate change and that they demonstrate a strong willingness to improve their understanding of climate science, management approaches, and climate policy. Further analysis reveals that officials working outside of the climate-related field showed stronger demands for enhancing their knowledge about climate change than those working in the field. The research suggests that the Jiangsu government would need to integrate capacity building into climate policy and take a systematic approach to equip local officials with newest scientific knowledge, policy developments, and necessary capacities for addressing climate change and pushing forward local low carbon development. KEYWORDS awareness of climate change, CO2 emissions reductions, capacity building for officials INTRODUCTION Jiangsu province is one of the most developed and economically active regions in China, which was the third biggest CO2 emitter in China. Jiangsu is vulnerable to climate change and facing pressure in reducing its carbon intensity. In China, it is local officials who practice measures and instruments, oversee low carbon progress, and connect climate policy processing with diverse individuals. Officials’ performances and actions play a critical role to determine whether or not CO2 emissions reduction and energy saving policies are implemented successfully. With this regard, this study aims to understand local officials’ awareness, beliefs and attitudes towards climate change, evaluate their capacity need to implement policy and respond to climate change risks, and provide information for the government to develop effective policy to enhance capacity building for local officials to help individuals to translate their intentions of CO2 emissions reductions into actions. RESEARCH DESIGN & DATA COLLECTION Research area Jiangsu province is located in the eastern coast of China and the downstream of the Yangzi River. The entire province nestles in the Yangzi River Delta, one of the most developed, densely populated, and economically active regions in China. Like most of the world’s river lower deltas, Jiangsu is mailto:qiying.hu@giz.de 57 vulnerable to climate change, especially sea level rise, which causes flooding from ocean storms and has potential to place tens of thousands of people at risk (Fan and Li, 2006; James, et al.,2009). Over the past years, the Jiangsu government has issued several policies and measures to respond to the central government’s actions on energy conservation and emissions reductions, facilitate its transition towards low carbon development, and address climate change risks. In 2009, the Jiangsu government compiled the Planning for Addressing Climate Change at the provincial level required by the central government, which prioritizes areas and policy measures for mitigating GHG emissions and adaptation to climate change risks, such as saving energy in key sectors and cities, optimizing and escalating industry structure, developing renewable and clean energies, and improving energy efficiency by using innovative technologies. During the 11th Five Year Plan, Jiangsu accomplished its target of energy conservation and emissions reduction allocated by the central government, reaching an accumulated decrease of 20.45% in energy consumption per unit of GDP. For the 12th Five Year Plan (2011-2015), in response to the new emissions reduction target set by the central government, by 2015 Jiangsu should reduce its CO2 emissions and energy consumption per unit of GDP by 19% and 18%, respectively, compared with the 2010 levels, increase Jiangsu’s share of no-fossil fuels of overall primary energy consumption by 7%, and increase forest coverage rate by 22% and forest stock by 6 million m3. These low carbon indicators have been officially included in the Jiangsu 12th Five Year Plan and mandated to be reached within the next five years under the average, annual economic growth rate of 10% (JDRC, 2011b). As one of the most developed regions in China, Jiangsu has begun to address the emerging challenges of building a low carbon society and coping with climate change risks. It is hoped that the information on local officials’ concerns about climate change from Jiangsu would be helpful for the Jiangsu government as well as the central and other provincial governments to initiate effective programs to improve officials’ capacity in implementing climate policy at different levels. Questionnaire design This study explored three specific research questions: 1) How do local officials understand climate change issues and what are their beliefs and concerns of China’s climate and energy issues; 2) How are local officials willing to improve their ability in dealing with climate change risks and what do they need to address climate change; and 3) How would climate policy at Jiangsu reflect local officials’ responses and capacity needs to manage climate change? To answer the questions, a questionnaire was designed on the basis of previous research related to both climate change science and policy measures as well as capacity building theories. A desktop literature review was conducted to survey the newest development of climate change science (e.g. IPCC reports), popularly used instruments to measure climate change awareness and concerns (e.g. Stanford University, Globe Scan, Yale and George Mason Universities, etc.), research work related to impacts of climate change on China, China’s policy and actions responding to climate change, as well as China’s real situations facing climate change challenges. This previous work was reflected in and informed the three main sections of the questionnaire developed for this study to examine local officials’ views on climate change in the Chinese contest. Based on capacity building theories and practices derived mainly from the literatures and reports released by the UN system (UNDP, 2009; UNDP, 2010a; UNDP, 2010b; FAO, 2010; GEF et al., 2010; WB, 2006), this research developed a capacity building framework for addressing climate 58 change in China, which served as a guideline for designing the questionnaire to examine Chinese officials’ needs for capacity improvement. The capacity building framework focuses on the individual capacities that are considered as requirements for officials to understand and make decisions on climate change policy and implement governmental policy at different levels (Table 1). Table 1. Capacity framework for officials addressing climate change Capacities Descriptions Technical capacity Accounting GHG emissions and energy consumption and managing emissions data Analyzing and assessing vulnerabilities and impacts of climate change risks Assessing low carbon performance and monitoring low carbon development processing Monitoring and managing policy implementation procedures, results, and expected performance, assessing and monitoring climate programs, providing feedback Knowledg e capacity Improving awareness and knowledge of climate change and its causes and risks Understanding national low carbon development and climate policy Obtaining relevant information and applying scientific results to support decision-making Analyzing impacts of climate change on individuals and understanding low carbon lifestyle Thinking of climate change issues systematically and comprehensively Policy capacity Forming and designing market-based emissions reduction and intensive mechanisms Integrating climate change risk management into low carbon development plan Including climate change mitigation and adaptation into low carbon green development Using decision-making tools to develop climate policy Coordinating with different stakeholders to implement climate policy Analyzing impacts of climate policy on individual and industrial sectors Explaining national, regional and local policy and their implementation The questionnaire developed to collect data for this research consists of four major parts. The first section included the basic demographic information, such as gender, age, educational and academic background, employment history, relevance of participants’ work to climate change related fields, membership of environmental organizations, and volunteering environmental events or activities. The second section of the questionnaire developed 12 climate change related topics to examine how well respondents’ knowledge about the issues. A three-point scale was used to measures participants’ knowledge level on climate topics, such as “never heard about it”, “heard about it”, and “know about it.” In the third part of the survey, 15 statements regarding the climate science and China’s situations were designed to examine respondents’ attitudes and beliefs about the climate issues. The statements were framed from perspectives of the causes of climate change, social and 59 environmental impacts, and potential solutions to climate issues. Respondents were asked to indicate their levels of agreement/disagreement of each statement on a 5-point scale. Following, three questions regarding China’s energy situation were included. The first question asked participants to express their concerns about China’s energy security under the circumstance that China is expected to import 70% of its oil from overseas. The second one asked participants’ attitudes towards future nuclear development in China after the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. The third one asked participants to indicate their concerns using renewable energies. The fourth part of the questionnaire surveyed local officials’ willingness to raise their awareness of climate change and about what topics they desire more knowledge. The first question asked participants if there is a need to improve their knowledge about climate change. The following questions investigated specific themes that participants would think important for enhancing their understandings of climate change issues. This part was organized as 7 climate sciences, 8 climate change management approaches, and 9 climate policies. A 5-point scale from “very important “to “not important” was used for participants to indicate their needs for capacity improvement on managing climate change. Survey procedures Before the official survey, the questionnaire was sent to climate experts, governmental officials, and climate change program managers for review. Meanwhile, several graduate students were invited to test the entire questionnaire. Based on feedback ascertained from expert reviews and pre-testing, the questionnaire was revised in wording, grammar, and scientific expressions to ensure its validity and reliability. In the official survey, an open question was added to ask participants to evaluate the effectiveness of the questionnaire. Thirty-five participants responded to this question and all of them indicated that the questionnaire is comprehensive and covers all necessary topics, targets the audience appropriately, and is clear and easy to read and understand. This information helped to confirm the reliability and quality of the questionnaire. Compared with officials from central governmental agencies, local officials in this research refer to those who are taking a post at governmental agencies from districts, cities and counties in Jiangsu province, excluding those from the provincial governmental agencies. The survey was conducted from November to December 2011 and the Jiangsu Development Reform Commissions (JDRC) helped to distribute 250 questionnaires to governmental bureaus, offices, and administrative units across all 13 district cities of Jiangsu province, including most of the 31 county-level cities and 33 counties, as well as a workshop for local officials. Participants from the diverse agencies were voluntarily and anonymously took part in this research and they were given detailed instructions on how to respond to the questions, especially the importance of answering the questions frankly and giving their true thoughts. Finally, 191 valid questionnaires were used for the data analysis. As shown in Table 2, the majority of participants (64%) are male and the average age is 35.3. Participants are well educated, 96.9% of them with a college degree or above, and most (80%) are trained in the social sciences. More than half of the participants (56%) were employed before 2000, nearly 40% of participants are working in the climate change related field, around 60% of participants volunteered to environmental protection activities, and only 5.2% of them are official members of an environmental organization. 60 Table 2. Profile for participants Variables Number of sample Mean/freque ncy Participants 191 Male 122 63.9% Female 69 36.1% Age 172 35.4 (S.D=8.338) Education College 148 77.5% Masters and above 37 19.4% High school 6 3.1% Academic background Engineering/Natural sciences 37 20% Humanities /Social Sciences 149 80% Year of employment Before 2000 (including 2000) 103 56% After 2000 81 44% Work relevance to climate change Relevant 86 46% Not relevant 102 54% Member of environmental organization 10 5.2% Volunteering in environment activities 113 59.2% SURVEY RESULTS Knowledge of climate change As shown in Table 3, global warming was well recognized by respondents, with more than 90% of them knowing the trend of global climate change. International climate policies like the Kyoto Protocol (63%) and the Framework Convention on Climate Change (55%) were also well known topics, with only 7% of participants having never heard of them. More than half of the respondents (52%) knew the Chinese government’s emissions commitment for 2020, and nearly half of them understood key issues like energy and climate change security, China’s emissions status in the world, and adaptation and mitigation strategies. Only 40% of participants acknowledged China’s low carbon practices and emissions trading. Although China’s CDM has the biggest share of the world’s project-based carbon market, 34% of respondents have never heard of CDM. Similarly, nearly 40% and 30% of respondents indicated that they have never heard about CCS and carbon sinks, respectively. Table 3. Knowledge of climate topics (N=191) Knowledge items Know about it Heard about it Never heard about it Global climate is becoming warmer over the past hundred years 91.10% 8.40% 0.50% Carbon capture and storage (CCS) 27.20% 34.00% 38.70% 61 Carbon sink or carbon sequestration 36.10% 35.10% 28.80% United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 55.50% 37.20% 7.30% Kyoto Protocol 62.80% 30.40% 6.80% CDM（Clean Development Mechanism） 38.70% 27.20% 34.0% Emissions trading 40.30% 41.90% 17.80% Climate /energy security 49.70% 46.60% 3.70% China’s provincial and city low carbon pilot programs 39.70% 42.90% 17.50% China is the world biggest GHG emitter since 2007 47.90% 38.90% 13.20% China will cut its carbon intensity by 40- 45% by 2020 against the 2005 level 52.40% 31.90% 15.70% Adaptation and mitigation are the two major strategies for coping with climate change challenges 46.60% 41.90% 11.50% Attitudes and beliefs in climate change As illustrated in Table 4, respondents showed a better understanding of the relationship between human-induced GHG emissions and climate change issues. The majority (93%) of respondents recognized changes in climate in their daily surroundings, 91.2% considered deforestation as one of the sources of CO2 emissions, 84.4% knew GHG comes from burning fossil fuels, 82.7% believed that GHG emissions from human activities contribute to climate change, and 81.7% thought energy-related emissions are the major source of GHG emissions. For the 5 statements related to the consequences of climate change, 92.7% of respondents believed that climate change impacts social and economic development and people’s daily lives, 89.5% agreed sea level rise associated with climate change causes flooding in China’s coastal regions, 81.7% thought climate change would lead to disasters if no actions are taken immediately, 77.6% agreed that climate change would reduce water availability and result in water shortage problems in northern China, and 83.7% supported the view that climate change may cause some diseases to spread and threaten public health in China. On the topic of solutions to climate change, the majority (94%) of respondents indicated that energy conservation is an important solution to reducing GHG emissions, 87.4% supported China’s earlier actions to mitigate GHG emissions despite associated with high cost, and 80% were optimistic about the future, since they believed that humans would find ways to deal with climate change issues as they grow more severe. However, the results indicated a trend that respondents did not favor climate change solutions that require individuals to pay extra money from their own pockets. For example, 50% of respondents supported a carbon tax mechanism, while 21.4% opposed it. Fifty-five of respondents were willing to pay for extra money to support the rise of oil prices for climate protection, but 19% of them were not willing to take this action. 62 Table 4. Attitudes and believes in climate change Statements 1-5 Likert-Scale (N=191) Mea n S.D I have observed climate change in my daily surroundings. 4.44 .591 Burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas emits GHG 4.24 .996 GHG emissions from human activities are the main cause of global warming 4.00 .863 CO2 is the most important GHG , and is mainly emitted by burning fossil fuels 4.01 .707 Deforestation is one of the major factors that contribute to GHG emissions 4.11 .721 Sea level rise associated with global warming would cause flooding disasters in China’s coastal areas. 4.19 .683 Global climate change would affect Chinese people’s daily life and living standards. 4.18 .671 Climate change would intensify water shortages in northern China and affect water resource availability. 4.04 .716 The increase of temperature may cause some diseases to spread and threaten public health in China. 4.01 .658 As predicted by scientists, if temperatures keep rising, we will face catastrophic consequences. 4.07 .804 Energy conservation is an important strategy to reduce GHG emissions. 4.12 .621 China should levy a carbon tax on energy consumption to encourage individuals to cut CO2 emissions. 3.40 1.087 I am willing to pay a higher price for petroleum if the money is used to support climate protection. 3.42 1.036 Although climate change mitigation is very costly, China should act immediately to reduce emissions. 4.19 .710 Climate change is a serious problem, but I believe we can find solutions to the issue. 3.99 .754 The data also indicates respondents’ great concerns about China’s energy problems. The majority (96%) of respondents believed that China would face energy shortage problems in the future, and 90% thought that China’s energy security would be affected by its heavy dependence on imported oil. After the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident, 62% of respondents believed that China should slow down its nuclear development and place safety as the top priority, but 38% insisted China should speed up its nuclear development to meet the rapidly increased energy demands. In regards to renewable energy, Table 5 reveals that respondents’ biggest concern is the price of renewable energy, followed by the stability of energy supply and renewable energy’s contribution to CO2 emissions cuts. It seems respondents are least concerned about the link between renewable energy and economic development and job creation. 63 Table 5. Concerns of using renewable energy Factors that affect the use of renewable energy Percentage (N=191) Price of renewable electricity 40.30% Stable supply of renewable electricity 28.30% Contribution to CO2 emissions reductions 23.00% Contribution to economic development and employment 8.30% Improving understandings of climate change When asked if respondents are willing to raise their understandings of climate change issues, 94% answered positively and 61% showed interests in knowing more about specific climate topics. As Table 6 shown, climate change sciences, climate change mitigation (88.7%), and impacts of climate change on society, economy and eco-system (88.1%) were prioritized as important topics, followed by scientific information on climate adaptation (82.7%), climate change trend, causes, and consequences (81.7%), the relationship between green development and addressing climate change (81.1%), and the link between low carbon society and managing climate change disasters (77.8%). Relatively, fewer respondents believed that climate change risks is an importance topic for understanding climate issues (72%), despite the fact that China has been listed as one of the vulnerable countries in the world to climate change impacts. Table 6. Scientific knowledge on climate change Climate change scientific topics 1-5 Likert Scale(N=191) Mean S.D Climate change: changing courses and causes 4.03 .064 Climate change risks and risk management 3.86 .062 Impacts of climate change on the environment, society and economy 4.17 .058 Climate change mitigation 4.19 .057 Climate change adaptation 4.12 .065 Green development and addressing climate change 4.18 .065 Low carbon society and resilience of climate risks 3.85 .070 For approaches to managing climate change, as indicated in Table 7, low carbon technology development and deployment (84.3%) and developing of low carbon indicators (83.5%) were prioritized as important topics, followed by the international MRV systems on GHG emissions (82%), methods for decomposing Chinese emissions reduction targets for the 12th Five Year Plan (82%), energy auditing (80%), and energy management contracting (78.5%). China’s GHG emissions monitoring and accounting, carbon cap-and-trade mechanism, and climate financial systems were favored by 75% respondents, respectively. In addition, 73.7% of respondents were interested in techniques that would be put into practice for local climate change adaptation. Only 71% of respondents responded to CDM methodologies as an important topic to learn. 64 Table 7. Techniques for managing climate change Techniques 1-5 Likert Scale (N=191) Mean S.D Energy auditing 3.97 .069 Energy Management Contract (EMC) 3.96 .062 China’s GHG emissions monitoring and accounting 3.97 .061 International systems on measuring, reporting and verification of GHG emissions 4.03 .064 Methodologies of decomposing energy and carbon intensity reduction targets for China’s 12th Five Year Plan 4.11 .069 Practical techniques for local climate adaptation 3.95 .066 Development of CDM project: procedures and methodologies 3.88 .067 Carbon cap-and-trade mechanism 3.87 .062 Climate /low carbon financial systems 3.87 .060 Low carbon technologies and R &D 4.08 .065 Indicator system for low carbon development 3.97 .065 Table 8 reveals that China’s strategic planning for energy and renewable energy, measures to fulfill the emissions targets set by the 12th Five Year Plan, and GHG emissions reduction policy were prioritized as important topics, each gaining 85% support rate by respondents. Policy impacts on social and economic development, international cooperation and technology transfer between developing and developed nations, and new developments on climate negotiations were preferred by 80% of respondents, respectively. Seventy-eight percent of respondents were interested in China’s long-term strategies on addressing climate change issues, and 69% of them favored international climate regulations and policies. Table 8. Policy approaches for addressing climate change Climate change policy and mechanisms 1-5 Likert- Scale(N=191) Mean S.D International climate regulations and policies 3.72 .064 China’s strategies and planning for addressing climate change issues 3.89 .066 China’s strategic planning for energy and renewable development 4.06 .061 Socio-economic impacts of China’s climate and energy policy 4.02 .059 Effective policies for controlling and reducing GHG emissions 4.15 .056 Measures for China to reach its energy conservation and emissions reduction target set by the 12th Five Year Plan 4.17 .061 65 International climate cooperation and technology transfer 4.10 .067 International climate negotiations and developments 3.96 .064 Responses from different groups Further data analysis was conducted to identify differences in views of climate change and demands for capacity development among groups from different social and professional backgrounds. There were no significant differences between female and male respondents regarding awareness about climate issues. However, male respondents showed significantly lower interest than females for knowing more about climate change risks and management (p

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EXPLORING SUSTAINABLE ENERGY OPTIONS FOR LOOP HEAD IC 2021 University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This report was prepared as a part of International Class 2021 by the students of Energy and Environmental Management (EEM) at Europa-Universität Flensburg. The digital International Class of 2021 was an unique experience for all the students, faculty members and Loop Head Community. The students are greatly thankful to Mr. John Aston and the entire Loop Head community for their active participation, valuable feedbacks and for immense support to complete IC 2021 successfuly in this challenging situation. The EEM students and the Loop Head community benefitted greatly from valuable experiences of Ms. Alison Macleod Ms. Elizabeth Johnson and Mr. Ross Gazey. The authors are greatly indebted to the EUF faculty Prof. Bernd Möller, Ms. Tabitha Karanja, and Mr. Mominul Hasan for their invaluable support and guidance. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 2 Contents LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ 5 LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... 6 LIST OF ACRONYMS .................................................................................................................. 7 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................ 8 1. Background ............................................................................................................................ 10 1.1. Community Energy Planning ........................................................................................ 10 1.2. Community Energy in Ireland ...................................................................................... 11 1.3. Community Energy in Loop Head ................................................................................ 13 1.4. Loop Head Community Energy Engagement Study by IC 2020 .................................. 14 2. Objectives .............................................................................................................................. 16 3. Scope of the Work ................................................................................................................. 16 4. Residential Sector .................................................................................................................. 17 4.1. Energy Efficiency in Residential Sectors ..................................................................... 17 4.1.1. Background ........................................................................................................... 17 4.1.2. Residential Sector Heat Demand .......................................................................... 18 4.1.3. Housing Stock Characteristics .............................................................................. 21 4.1.4. Energy Efficiency Potential in Buildings ............................................................. 22 4.1.5. Case Study of Energy Refurbishment for a Selected Building Type.................... 24 4.1.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 28 4.2. PV System Design for Residential Buildings ............................................................... 28 4.2.1. Residential Demand .............................................................................................. 28 4.2.2. Roof Top Solar for Residential Sector .................................................................. 30 5 Farming Sector ...................................................................................................................... 31 5.1 Circular Economy in Farms .......................................................................................... 31 5.2 Implementing Circular Economy in Loop Head Farms ................................................ 34 5.2.1 Energy Auditing ........................................................................................................ 34 5.2.2 PV System design for Farms..................................................................................... 39 5.2.3 Anaerobic Digester Design for Farms ...................................................................... 49 University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 3 5.3 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 56 6 Community Energy Modelling .............................................................................................. 58 6.1 Energy Modelling for Loop Head Community ............................................................. 59 6.2 Excel Modelling Tool Development ............................................................................. 61 6.3 Methodology for Overall Community Energy Model Development ............................ 63 6.3.1 Identification of Major Energy Consuming Sectors and Demand Estimation ......... 63 6.3.2 Hourly Electricity Demand Profile of Different Sectors .......................................... 67 6.3.3 Generation Technologies .......................................................................................... 70 6.3.4 CO2 Emission Calculation from Imported Electricity.............................................. 72 6.3.5 Financial Calculation Assumptions .......................................................................... 73 6.4 Integration of Individual Single-User Modelling Section in IC Model 2021 ............... 76 6.5 Challenges of Modelling ............................................................................................... 76 6.6 Model Limitations ......................................................................................................... 77 7 Community Engagement ....................................................................................................... 79 7.1 Community Workshops ................................................................................................ 79 7.2 Workshop Sessions and Discussion .............................................................................. 81 Session 1 ................................................................................................................................ 81 Session 2 ................................................................................................................................ 84 Session 3 ................................................................................................................................ 88 Session 4 ................................................................................................................................ 91 8 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 94 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 97 APPENDIX ................................................................................................................................. 103 A. Residential Demand ........................................................................................................ 103 A.1. The results of poll conducted at the 1st Workshop to Community in 8th of February 2021. 103 A.2. The results of poll conducted at the Workshop to Community in 22 February 2021. 103 B. Theory on Circular Economy.......................................................................................... 105 C. Energy Audit ................................................................................................................... 108 University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 4 C.1. Levels of energy audit ............................................................................................. 109 C.2. Process to conduct an energy audit ......................................................................... 110 D. Biogas for waste management ........................................................................................ 111 E. Solar PV systems ............................................................................................................ 114 F. Policies and Regulations ................................................................................................. 115 F.1. Circular Economy ................................................................................................... 115 F.2. 5.1.2.2 Solar PV ...................................................................................................... 117 G. Energy Modelling ........................................................................................................... 121 G.1. Purpose of Energy Modelling ................................................................................. 122 G.2. Approach to Energy Modelling .............................................................................. 123 H. Community Engament Workshops-Discussions............................................................. 124 H.1. Session 1 ................................................................................................................. 124 H.2. Session 2 ................................................................................................................. 126 H.3. Session 3 ................................................................................................................. 128 H.4. Session 4 ................................................................................................................. 131 University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 5 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1-1: Summary of SEAI's Guidelines for a Sustainable Energy Community ..................... 12 Figure 4-1:Share of Dwellings by Occupancy Status in Loop Head in 2016 ............................... 18 Figure 4-2:HDD and Monthly Heat Demand for Kilkee (code: 037077001/037077002/037077003) ............................................................................................. 19 Figure 4-3:Total Heat Demand in Cold and Hot Season by District in 2016, MWh. ................... 20 Figure 4-4:The Average Total, Space, Water Heat Demand per Household. ............................... 21 Figure 4-5: Cumulative Energy Cost Curve ................................................................................. 23 Figure 5-1: Circular Dairy Vision ................................................................................................. 31 Figure 5-2: Example of electricity consumption in Irish Farms ................................................... 40 Figure 5-3: Total Hourly Demand Farming Sector....................................................................... 41 Figure 5-4: Inputs rooftop solar systems tool. .............................................................................. 43 Figure 5-5: Inflation in Ireland. .................................................................................................... 44 Figure 5-6: Electricity rated in households ................................................................................... 45 Figure 5-7: Outputs rooftop solar systems too .............................................................................. 46 Figure 5-8: July - Energy balance Typical weekday and weekend day ........................................ 47 Figure 5-9: Annual electricity bill value. ...................................................................................... 48 Figure 6-1: Process of Community Energy Modelling ................................................................. 58 Figure 6-2: The purpose of Loop Head Energy Model ................................................................. 59 Figure 6-3: Sections of IC Model 2021 ........................................................................................ 61 Figure 6-4: Conceptual Framework for Community Energy Model Development ...................... 63 Figure 6-5: Sectoral Energy Demand in Loop Head .................................................................... 64 Figure 6-6: Hourly Electricity Demand Profile for Residential Sector for a Week ...................... 68 Figure 6-7: Hourly Electricity demand Profile for Farming for a Week ...................................... 69 Figure 6-8: Hourly Electricity Demand Profile for Commercial sector for a Week .................... 69 University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 6 LIST OF TABLES Table 4-1. The Classification of the Building Characteristics in Loop Head ............................... 21 Table 4-2. Pre-refurbishment Parameters of the Selected House ................................................. 24 Table 4-3. Investments Cost and Related Energy/Cost Savings for 1 Scenario ........................... 25 Table 4-4. Financial and Energy Calculations for Heating Technologies for Selected House ..... 26 Table 4-5: Values for Residential Demand Profile ....................................................................... 29 Table 5-1: Results of interviews on electricity demand................................................................ 36 Table 5-2: Results of interviews on diesel demand ...................................................................... 38 Table 5-3: Feed-In Tariff Used in the Model................................................................................ 46 Table 5-4: Comparison of AD operational parameters ................................................................. 51 Table 5-5: Thermal end-use .......................................................................................................... 52 Table 5-6: Electrical end-use ........................................................................................................ 53 Table 5-7: Biomethane Upgradation end-use ............................................................................... 54 Table 6-1: Additional features IC 2021 Model ............................................................................. 60 Table 6-2: Technical Parameters for PV system ........................................................................... 70 Table 6-3: Financial Parameters for PV system ........................................................................... 71 Table 6-4: Technical Parameters for Wind Farm ......................................................................... 72 Table 6-5: Financial Parameters for Wind Farm .......................................................................... 72 Table 6-6 : Fuel Cost considered in IC Model 2021 ..................................................................... 74 Table 6-7: SEAI Solar Grants considered in IC Model 2021 ....................................................... 74 Table 7-1: Workshop content........................................................................................................ 80 University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 7 LIST OF ACRONYMS AD Anaerobic Digester BEH Better Energy Homes BER Building Energy Rate CAPEX CAPital EXpenditure CAT Clare Accessible Transport COD Chemical Oxygen Demand CSO Central Statistics Office EUF Europa Universität Felnsburg GHG Green House Gas HDD Heating Degree Days IC International Class IRENA International Renewable Energy Agency IRR Internal Rate of Return LCOE Levelized Cost of Electricity LEAP Loop Head Energy Action Partnership LED Light Emitting Diodes NPV Net Present Value OPEX Operating Expenses PV Photo Voltaic RE Renewable Energy RNG Renewable Natural Gas SEAI Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland SEC Sustainable Energy Community VAT Value Added Tax University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 8 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Community energy planning provides a high degree of ownership and control to a community aiding towards the development of a sustainable energy sector. Community engagement is a crucial aspect of the energy planning process. Thus, the following study conducted by the international class 2021 emphasized on involving and interacting with the local community of the peninsula to get a better understanding of their perspective of the energy sector and their preferences, on which this study is based. Also, inputs were taken from the previous study of IC 2020 to consolidate the working sectors of residential, farming, energy modelling and community energy training. The students working in the residential sector focused on energy efficiency measures in buildings and their effect on energy consumption in residential sector. The report provides insight on composition of heat consumption in Loop Head and effect of energy efficient interventions towards cost savings. A BER estimator tool was developed to provide recommendations on improving energy efficiency for an individual household based on the pre-existing conditions of the household. The study also identified several factors which influence the heat demand in residential sector and the retrofitting measures to reduce heat demand and heat losses in buildings. The results of the case study showed the implementation of retrofitting measures and installation of air-to-air heat pumps had potential with regards to cost savings. The cheapest option for the heating technology was identified as biomass boiler with investment cost of about 5,000 Euros with cost savings of 2,675 Euros per annum. The cheapest heat pump option of 11,790 Euros were identified with 3,241 Euros of annual reduction in expenditure. The students introduced the farming sector to the concept of a circular economy and identified possible areas of intervention of the concept in the sector. Three main working areas were identified to implement circularity in individual farms. First, energy efficiency measures were identified and potential improvement measures for the farms were recommended. Secondly to meet the energy self-sufficiency solar PV systems were investigated. An open interactive solar technical design and financial estimation tool was developed. Finally, to address the issues of waste management in the farms the anaerobic digestion technology was analysed, and a similar University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 9 interactive tool was developed. Running simulations of the tools on sample farm inputs showed good technical and financial feasibility of solar PV systems thus ensuring potential for self-energy generation. The results form the AD tool showed potential with regards to technical feasibility and waste management but did show attractive financial feasibility in the absence of financial incentives. To promote and assist in the establishment process of Sustainable energy system, an excel energy modelling tool was developed for Loop Head. This tool will provide the basis for investment decisions, support operational decisions, and perform scenario analysis. It is designed to assist the potential users from Loop Head to analyse overall system performance. Besides, the model is also designed to aid the users to identify solutions for obtaining energy efficiency in residential buildings and attain sustainability in Loop Head Farms. In addition, community capacity building workshops were conducted through the LEAP Energy Academy to inform the community members of the work of IC2021, and to get their feedback as the work is being done. The workshops allowed IC2021 to familiarize with relevant concepts and terminologies in community energy with focus on Loop Head. Speakers from Scottish communities, whom in the past hosted international class we also invited to share experiences with the Loop Head community. Since this year’s international class is virtual, the workshops also allowed the Flensburg students to interact with the Loop Head community. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 10 1. Background 1.1. Community Energy Planning Community energy provides ‘Power to the people’. (Seyfang et al., 2013) defined community energy as “those projects where communities (of place or interest) exhibit a high degree of ownership and control, as well as benefiting collectively from the outcomes, and we include both supply- and demand-side sustainable energy initiatives”. The idea is simple, communities generate energy in the community to be consumed by the community, but how it is done depends on local and national legislation/ regulations at the time. In Europe, Community energy refers to projects where citizens own or participate, form a legal structure to collectively finance and establish energy projects, to generate electricity, heat from renewable energy projects (Claudia Fruhmann and Nina Knittel, 2016). Renewable energy generated by such projects is collectively sold, to members of community, and local energy utilities, and the profit is split among the participating members. The two approaches of community energy projects are: the bottom-up approach; where citizens establish and own renewable energy projects, and top-down approach; citizens participation is realized through buying shares of renewable energy projects of already established or planned energy projects. The latter approach allows renewable energy projects to be co-owned by citizens, thus facilitating large-scale projects. While there does not exist a magna carta for community energy planning, which has seen diverse processes in different parts of the world, the importance of community involvement is never understated. Findings by (Heaslip et al., 2016) indicate that, despite a lack of a specific implementation framework, the tools and methodologies used by the sustainable energy communities they studied were similar. (Heaslip et al., 2016)’s research studied the sustainable energy journeys of Marstal and Samsø in Denmark and Cloughjordan in Ireland. Their research also found that the Sustainable Energy Communities (SECs) studied were financially motivated, looking to bolster local economy and reduce energy cost. In addition to that (Seyfang et al., 2013) found that saving money on energy bills is the single most cited objective for SECs in the UK. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 11 Other objectives included: reducing carbon emissions, community empowerment, improve local environment and influence sustainability and climate change policy. Information and incentives from larger organizations is also cited by a number of communities studied by (St. Denis and Parker, 2009) in Canada. One of the most important characteristics of community-owned (or co-owned) energy projects is the active participation of citizens in renewable energy generation, thus, significantly increasing the public acceptance of renewable energy production. This is because community-owned renewable energy projects provide co-benefits to the participants by harnessing local natural resources, building social capital, counteracting on fuel poverty and increasing employment in regional level (Claudia Fruhmann and Nina Knittel, 2016). These close ties to the community increase public awareness, decrease local opposition to renewable energy projects and support the transition to low carbon energy. Due to their heavy financial commitments and the relatively low risk-return ratios of Renewable Energy (RE) projects, established energy companies are locked into fossil fuel-based infrastructures (Lowitzsch, 2018). On the other hand, community ownership generally operates with small capacities despite relatively high capital costs per kW of installed power compared to large central plant and does not have to worry much about their quarterly returns as well. This approach is changing energy supply infrastructure in many countries and driving the energy transition with small-scale Renewable Energy Technologies (RETs) (Lowitzsch, 2018). 1.2. Community Energy in Ireland In Ireland, the Energy White Paper launched in 2015 attaches a lot of weight to communities’ contributions to achieving a low carbon energy system by 2050. According to SEAI, there are over 400 communities which are working together in the sustainable energy network (SEAI, 2021c). The common goals of these sustainable energy communities are energy-efficiency, use renewable energy, and consider smart energy solutions. The activities of these communities are related to: • Improving Sustainability and environment by changing energy use through collective effort. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 12 • Reducing energy cost by investing on local renewable energy projects and in long term free up money, that otherwise spent on fossil fuels, to be spent in the community. • Improving the living conditions in houses and community buildings, by controlling how houses are heated, lighting systems. • Bringing the community closer and contribute to goals such as green tourism, eco- congregation, and tidy town activities. The SEC handbook also maps out a framework for communities in Ireland to become Sustainable Energy Communities under the SEC Network, which is designed to enable SECs engage and learn from each other through site visits, seminars, events, and case studies. The framework described in the SEC handbook is a welcomed simplification of the Guidelines for a Sustainable Energy Community, released in 2010. The guidelines outlined the following steps: Source: (Heaslip et al., 2016) Figure 1-1: Summary of SEAI's Guidelines for a Sustainable Energy Community The current SEC Handbook from SEAI simplifies the process to include the following three stages (SEAI, 2018d): i. Learn ii. Plan iii. Do The original guidelines limits community engagement, which aims to involve the community to achieve long-term and sustainable outcomes, processes, decision-making, or implementation. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 13 SEAI recommended community involvement only in the final stages of the planning process and in the implementation (Heaslip et al., 2016). This position is revised in the SEC Handbook, where community involvement is recommended from the very beginning. However, community involvement can be seen to vary in the initial stages of the planning process. With communication between the lay-community and experts usually a challenge, communication in the form of public consultations or meetings were realized in the SECs reviewed in both (Heaslip et al., 2016) and (St. Denis and Parker, 2009). Bomberg and McEwen (2012), emphasize the importance of mobilization for SECs in the UK, noting that, “effective mobilization is a precursor to the energy action discussed in many existing studies of community energy” (Bomberg and McEwen, 2012). 1.3. Community Energy in Loop Head The IC 2020 report has expounded on the community energy planning process in the context of the Loop Head peninsula. In this year’s international class, the LEAP Energy Academy presents an opportunity to consolidate the work of IC 2020. In the aspect of community engagement, the LEAP Energy Academy presents an avenue to inform and familiarize the community with basic topics, concepts, terminologies relevant to community energy. This is discussed in detail in the community engagement chapter. The modelling tool developed in IC 2020, is identified as a major focus for IC 2021, to simplify and improve the IC 2020 model. The improvements made are cognizant of the realities of the Loop Head peninsula, in terms of the community’s objectives, the available renewable energy potential and the applicable SEAI grants. Furthermore, energy efficiency was identified as a major energy related problem in Loop Head and as such received significant attention. Anaerobic digestion was identified by the community members interviewed by IC 2020 as the favoured technology for a community energy scheme. As part of the activities for IC 2021, the use of anaerobic digestors for farming establishments in Loop Head was studied. This study was a part of the research conducted on the concept of circular economy and its potential applications in Loop Head, primarily in the farming sector. With the main deliverables of the IC 2021 being the workshop, model, and report, it is the hope of the students that, the outcome of IC 2021 will kickstart the next phase of the community energy journey of the Loop Head Peninsula. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 14 1.4. Loop Head Community Energy Engagement Study by IC 2020 In the previous year, the International Class of 2020 (IC 2020) acknowledged the importance of community engagement during their trip to the Loop Head community. The pre-feasibility study activities of the IC 2020 understood the challenges, ideas, and future aspirations of the community members on the energy use/sector from the community’s viewpoint. This was crucial to creating an alignment with the community objectives and the objectives of the International class. The findings of the study from the previous year helped the IC 2021 study team to better understand the status of energy sector of the peninsula. It also provided a guidance to drive forward the community energy planning in Loop Head. The IC 2020 conducted two workshops with the community to understand the status-quo of energy consumption, and the community’s potential needs going forward. The workshop had identified that the major energy-related problem in the Loop Head community was with energy efficiency and insulation in residential buildings. This was due to many of the old buildings, which have poor insulations and were hard to retrofit. The farms were facing difficulty to manage slurry, especially during the wintertime. The community also faced a problem with public transport facilities and lacks access to national gas grid. Currently, in the Loop Head area, Clare Accessible Transport (CAT) operates only 2 days a week on Wednesdays and Fridays (Clarebus, 2021). The nearest injection point is located in Ennis, 55 km from Kilkee, which requires a very high investment cost (IC, 2020). Also, they were unaware of different grants for different agencies and were concerned about the potential environmental impacts of energy projects. To this, the workshop had identified energy generation from waste or slurry as a potential solution. The community had been interested in upgrading the heating system in old buildings, developing small scale solar and wind farms, conducting a pre-feasibility study on an Anaerobic Digestor for energy generation and optimizing energy to reduce CO2 emissions by retrofitting old buildings. However, there were some challenges in the community to implement energy-related projects. One of the major issues identified was the lack of knowledge of best practice in energy efficiency and energy project. The community also lacked expertise in the financial and technical management of the project. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 15 During these workshops, it was also identified that it is necessary to have active participation of the community member to develop a successful energy project. For this to happen, the community members should be able to understand various energy technologies and terminologies so that they understand the activities being carried out. A better understanding of the technology, the background of the technologies and the interaction of individual technologies with the energy system can enable the community members to participate in community energy projects. This will encourage community members to have a discussion on the energy-related topic and provide feedback, which is important to develop a community energy project. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 16 2. Objectives As direct interaction with the community during this year’s study (IC2021) was limited, the objectives for the study were defined based on online interaction with the community and learnings from the IC2020 report. • Support the community to understand technical aspects and underlying economics of renewable energy and community opportunities via community engagement. • Identify/explore the possible area, which addresses community’s interest for achieving energy sustainability in the peninsula. • Analyse possible solutions to achieve energy sustainability in the peninsula. • Develop an interactive energy modelling tool which empowers the community to initiate a qualified dialogue on energy transition. 3. Scope of the Work The scope of IC 2021 covers the identification of measures for achieving building efficiency in the residential sectors of Loop Head along with designing of PV systems for the residential sector. The study also intends to analyse the possibility of implementing circular economy in the farming sector via integration of energy efficient technologies and self-renewable energy generation like PV system and anaerobic digesters. Besides, the study aims to interact with the community to obtain inputs to design an overall community energy modelling tool. The development of this tool will integrate the details of residential and farming sector along with the commercial sector in the peninsula. Finally, IC 2021 will conduct interactive workshop and training sessions to enhance the capacity of Loop Head community in energy sector. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 17 4. Residential Sector 4.1. Energy Efficiency in Residential Sectors 4.1.1. Background This chapter discusses the potential factors that affect energy consumption in residential sector in Loop Head peninsula of Ireland. One fourth of electricity and heat demand in Ireland belongs to residential sector (SEAI, 2020c). Meanwhile, around 80 percent of energy supply source for residential sector has been produced from fossil fuel which has been responsible for nearly one fourth of CO2 emissions (SEAI, 2018a). However, Ireland supports the European Union targets towards the reduction of CO2 emission from non- industrial sectors by 20% by 2020 and increase energy efficiency of the economy by 20% as well (Government of Ireland, 2020). In this view, the residential sector can contribute to achievement of these targets significantly. As stated in (Gianluca Trotta, 2018) energy efficiency improvement is an one of the cost-effective way to decrease the CO2 emission, that can protect environment, enhance economic growth and unleash investment opportunities. This chapter discusses the potential factors that affect energy consumption in residential sector in Loop Head peninsula of Ireland. Various institutional arrangements, relevant policies and financial schemes have been initiated to enable energy efficiency across key sectors of economy in Ireland. For instance, to promote Building Energy Rate (BER) improvement in Ireland, SEAI initiated the Better Energy Homes (BEH) scheme which provided grants to support houseowners to improve energy efficiency in terms of building elements insulation and upgrading heating system such as a heat pumps installation (SEAI, 2019). Hence, there are good opportunities for residential sector to not only reduce the dependency on fossil fuels but bring social and economic benefits for communities. Various institutional arrangements, relevant policies and financial schemes have been initiated to enable energy efficiency across key sectors of economy in Ireland. For instance, to promote Building Energy Rate (BER) improvement in Ireland, SEAI initiated the Better Energy Homes (BEH) scheme which provided grants to support houseowners to improve energy efficiency in terms of building elements insulation and upgrading heating system such as a heat pumps University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 18 installation (SEAI, 2019). Hence, there are good opportunities for residential sector to not only reduce the dependency on fossil fuels but bring social and economic benefits for communities. 4.1.2. Residential Sector Heat Demand To produce a local statistical database for the composition of building mass, data on population and households was derived and summarized from administrative statistical database (Central Statistic office, 2016). As per Central Statistics Office (CSO) in Ireland, in Loop Head there are 22 small areas under 10 electoral divisions. The estimated total population amounted to 2893 which also includes Einagh, recently added tenth electoral division (Central Statistic office, 2016). As depicted in Figure 4-1, 52% of all houses (1680 houses) in Loop Head accounted for unoccupied holiday houses, while 38% (1212 houses) are occupied houses. Source: Author elaboration based on (Central Statistic office, 2016), (SEAI, 2018c) Figure 4-1:Share of Dwellings by Occupancy Status in Loop Head in 2016 According to the interactive maps data from Heat Demand Map (SEAI, 2018c), total heat demand for each small area is used in order to identify monthly values of heating demand for space and water. The conversion from annual values to monthly values is made based on heating per capita parameters and weather data on heating degree days (HDD) in Ireland. Total heating demand and University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 19 water heating demand in residential sector for whole Ireland are 31.4 TWh and 5.9 TWh respectively (SEAI, 2018a). By dividing by the total population of Ireland, water heating demand per capita was calculated. Then annual water heating demand for each small area was calculated as water heating demand per capita multiplied to the total population of people of each small area. Space heating demand for each small was found by subtracting water heating demand from total heat demand, which was derived from Heat Demand Maps (SEAI, 2018c). Then, space heating demand per capita was divided to total heating degree days, which is 1871 in 2019 (Degree Days, 2021). Attributing space heating demand per capita/HDD for each month respective heating degree days and dividing annual water heating demand to 12, monthly values of heat demand which is the sum of water heating demand and space heating demand for each area were calculated. The Figure 4-2. shows that changes in heat consumption are in line with changes in heating degree days. Source: (Author elaboration based on (SEAI, 2018c), (Central Statistic office, 2016)) Figure 4-2:HDD and Monthly Heat Demand for Kilkee (code: 037077001/037077002/037077003) As seen from the Figure 4-3, total heat demand in December across all districts are in the order of 100 MWh to 380 MWh, while in July the heat consumption is nearly in the range between 50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 M W h Months HDD and Monthly Head Demand for Kilkee Mothly total heat demand, MWh Monthly HDD University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 20 MWh. Kilkee is the district with highest heat consumption in Loop Head with heat demand in December stands at 1254 MWh. Source: Author elaboration based on (SEAI, 2018c), (Central Statistic office, 2016). Figure 4-3:Total Heat Demand in Cold and Hot Season by District in 2016, MWh. Estimated total heat consumption for Loop Head is 18,733 MWh/year, out of which 15,151 MWh/year heat consumption goes to space heating, and 3,582 MWh/year is consumed for water heating. Average heat consumption per household for space and water heating are depicted Figure 4-4, assuming that fuel technology are the same across all districts. 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 M W h Districts Total heat demand in cold and hot season in Loop Head Total heating demand in December, MWh Total heating demand in July, MWh University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 21 Source: Author elaboration based on (SEAI, 2018c), (Central Statistic office, 2016) Figure 4-4:The Average Total, Space, Water Heat Demand per Household. 4.1.3. Housing Stock Characteristics The housing stock characteristics of the residential sector in Loop Head were classified according to their relevance to understanding of energy use and monitoring energy efficiency measures effect. The following eight dwelling age bands were distinguished with corresponding type of dwelling, envelope material and total number of households that belong to each age band. In 2016 the highest share which is 22% share of housing stock represents buildings constructed after 2005, and second largest share of houses, 16% represents old houses built before 1919 (Central Statistic office, 2016). According to the Table 4-1 the most common type of building which can be found in each age band category is detached house. The most common materials of envelope are cavity walls and timber frame. Table 4-1. The Classification of the Building Characteristics in Loop Head Household period of construction Type of Building Building Envelope Total number of 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 M W h /H H Months Average Heat Demand per Household Total heat demand per household, MWh/hh Space heating demand per household, MWh/hh Water heating demand per household, MWh/hh University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 22 occupied Households Pre 1919 Detached House, End of terrace house, Terraced house, Bungalow stone walls, solid brick walls 188 1930-1949 Detached bungalow, Terraced house mass concrete 133 1950-1966 Bungalow, Semidetached, Terraced house, Apartment hollow block, solid brick & concrete walls 89 1967-1977 Detached Bungalow, End of terrace house cavity walls 96 1978-1982 Detached house, Terraced house cavity walls, Hollow block 144 1983-1993 Detached bungalow, Semidetached house, Terraced house cavity walls, Hollow block 117 1994-2004 Detached bungalow, Terraced house, End of terrace house cavity walls, Timber frame 170 2005-2010 Detached bungalow, Semidetached house, Terraced house cavity walls, Timber frame 262 Source: (TABULA, 2014) and (Central Statistic office, 2016) 4.1.4. Energy Efficiency Potential in Buildings Energy efficiency in building can be gained through various options including refurbishment, advanced heating system and renewable technologies and heating/cooling control system. One of the cost-efficient ways to improve the energy performance in existing houses may be to apply retrofitting measures. In this project, a model for evaluating BER rate improvement measures was built. As a part of this model, a potential energy savings cost curve was developed based on the original data of (TABULA, 2014). The aim of this curve is to inform users and help to compare costs associated with certain amount of intended energy savings in building stock. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 23 For the analysis of the effect of retrofitting measures, data on housing stock characteristics in Ireland from European building typology Tabula database was used. Eight representative buildings, all of which are detached houses, were selected for each period of construction, assuming that they have the same gross floor area. The retrofitting measures at advanced level with associated costs of investments were compiled for each house. Primary energy demand before and after refurbishment that were further converted to useful energy, was used to quantify the energy savings related to each saving option. It was assumed that all building under each age category have the same energy demand, the same heating technology and belong to the same building type. Based on total energy savings per area of building surface and total investment cost of refurbishment activity, the cumulative cost of the last retrofitting measure and corresponding energy savings in MWh per year for one house were calculated. Figure 4-5: Cumulative Energy Cost Curve Looking at the Figure 4-5, it could be inferred that to reach the heat savings at 30% of energy demand in housing stock in Loop Head, total investment costs at 6 million Euro would be needed. Potential savings of 35 and up to 42% of energy demand are observed with relatively high costs of retrofitting measures. This could be explained by lower energy demand before introducing retrofitting. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% C u m u la ti ve c o st , m ill io n E u ro Heat Savings University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 24 4.1.5. Case Study of Energy Refurbishment for a Selected Building Type This study aims to describe one representative house with relevant physical characteristics to analyse the effect of energy efficient measures on heat consumption. It is important to note, that due to lack of data and access to real existing houses, in-depth analysis of thermal and energy performance was deemed infeasible. However, based on data (TABULA, 2014), house characteristics and cost of retrofitting measures was used for this study. The selected house was built before 1919 with no prior deep renovation made and connected to central oil-heating system with 70% efficiency. 4.1.5.1 Pre-refurbishment parameters Table 4-2. Pre-refurbishment Parameters of the Selected House Material Current U- value, W/m2 Surface Area, m2 Current heat losses, kWh/m² Wall Solid stone 2.1 80 168 Roof Pitched, insulation between joists 0.68 100 68 Windows Single glazed, wooden frame 4.8 40 192 Door Solid timber 3.0 20 60 The U value, which expresses how well insulated the material of envelope are, was taken as an input to calculate heat losses as well as floor are of each building components. The values of floor University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 25 areas for each element are rough assumed values based on Tabula database records (TABULA, 2014). To assess the energy efficiency measures and understand the potential savings of cost and fuels, two scenarios were developed. The first scenario sets to analyses application of retrofitting measures and their effect on heat losses. The second scenario was built as a further improvement step for the selected house with introducing new heat technology to replace the oil boiler. 4.1.5.2 Energy efficiency scenario 1- Retrofitting measures Due to a limited data on different types of retrofitting measures of different building components, for the scenario analysis, standard packages of retrofitting activities was selected from (TABULA, 2014). The heat demand before retrofitting measures amounted to 42.2 MWh/ m2/y. It was assumed that the roof would be insulated by an additional layer of 200 mm mineral wool, while walls would be insulated by applying approximately 120 mm of external insulation which brings the U-value of roof and wall to 0.13 and 0.27, respectively. Door and windows would be replaced to more efficient ones with double-glazed frame and sufficiently insulated doors. Based on these considerations, heat losses after implementing all refurbishment activities were amounted to 26.2 MWh. Consequently, energy demand was reduced to 160 kWh/m2/y that lies under the range of energy consumption of BER rate C1. Investments costs of retrofitting measures, corresponding energy savings and reduced heat losses are compiled in Table 4-3. Table 4-3. Investments Cost and Related Energy/Cost Savings for 1 Scenario Investment costs, Euro Reduced heat losses, kWh Energy savings, kWh/m2/y Energy savings, % Investment cost of savings, Euro/kWh/y Roof insulation 1,322 3,528 35.3 8 0.37 Wall + roof insulation 30,886 13,535 135.3 40 2.85 Wall + roof insulation + 36,941 26,236 262.4 52 3.26 University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 26 Window and Door 4.1.5.3 Energy efficiency scenario 2 - Retrofitting measures and replacing oil-boiler with more efficient heating technology. Online workshops, open discussions and results of interview through online survey questionnaire during the Training program showed a high interest of community members about new heating technology that can reduce oil consumption for existing heating system and reduce energy bills (see Appendix A). The growing interest also can be supported by SEAI grants to refund a certain amount of investment cost. One of the requirements of eligibility for a grant is low heat losses (SEAI, 2020b). This can be achieved through well insulated building envelope and renovated windows and doors. Hence, this scenario is based on the result of 1st scenario when all retrofitting measures are implemented. As alternative options for old oil heating system three types of heat technologies were analysed. Relevant calculations of investment cost, operation and maintenance costs, fuel costs, fuel saving are compiled in excel file. The technical characteristic on efficiency, nominal capacities and coefficient of performance were derived from (Danish Energy Agency, 2016). The investment cost, operation and maintenance costs were obtained through (European Comission, 2017). Fuel prices for oil, electricity and wood pellets have been derived from (SEAI, 2021a). CO2 emission intensity factors for each type of fuel have used from (SEAI, 2016b). The Table 4-4 below contains the results of calculations of costs, CO2 emissions and fuel savings. Table 4-4. Financial and Energy Calculations for Heating Technologies for Selected House Oil boiler (current system) Heat pump air-to air Heat pump air-to water Biomass boiler CAPEX, Euro 11,790 26,270 5230 OPEX, Euro/kW/year 28.26 117.9 52.54 335 University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 27 Fuels costs, Euro/year 4117 876 1051 1442 Secondary energy demand after retrofitting, kWh/year 16,054 16,054 16,054 16,054 CO2 emissions, tCO2/kWh 4.2 1.8 2.1 0.2 Grants 600 3,500 Cost savings, Euro/y 3,241 3,065 2,675 Total investment (1+2 scenario) 43,075 57,555 36,515 All three heating technologies, particularly heat pumps air-to air, heat pump air-to water and biomass boiler have lower CO2 emission value and higher energy savings in comparison with oil boiler system. The cheapest option seems to be biomass boiler with 5,230 Euro of investment cost. Also, grant for installation of heat pump air-to water and heat pump air-to air are available from SEAI (SEAI, 2020b). 4.1.5.4 Case study results This case study can help in bringing understanding of energy efficiency measures in buildings, their relevance to energy consumption and household expenditures on fuels. It can add strength to the existing knowledge about insulation of building envelope, BER rates and range of available heating technologies with efficient operation characteristics. First scenario showed that the total investment cost for the whole package of retrofitting measures is 36,941 Euro. The initial heat demand was amounted to 42.2 MWh/y. After insulating roof, and replacing windows and doors, total heat demand was decreased to 16 MWh/y. The second scenario entails combination of retrofitting measures and replacing of existing oil heating system with heat pumps. Considering the lower investment cost in comparison with heat pump air-to air, it is worth to consider wood pellets boiler with investment cost 5,230 Euro and cost savings on fuel amounted to 2,675 Euro in a year. The next cheaper option is heat pump air-to air with investment cost 11,790 Euro and University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 28 reduced expenditure on oil at 3241 Euro in a year. Considering the 1st scenario, total investment cost would be 43,075 Euro for implementing retrofitting measures and installation of heat pump air-to air. Considering that this technology uses clean way of producing energy, the scenario with this heating system has huge potential to reduce household expenditures and contribute to sustainable development of community. 4.1.6 Conclusion Based on the analysis of energy demand, marginal energy cost curve and results of simulation of scenarios for one selected house several conclusions were drawn. The energy demand, particularly heat demand in residential sector, are determined by weather conditions, winter/summer season temperature patterns, housing stock parameters such as age of building, number of buildings. The heat savings in buildings and associated costs are closely linked with building envelope material and level of insulation. Moreover, replacing oil boilers with more efficient clean heating technologies can reduce household’s expenditures on fuel and their carbon footprint. 4.2. PV System Design for Residential Buildings 4.2.1. Residential Demand To calculate the hourly residential demand, the average demand of a household in Ireland was extracted from (Ricardo, 2020). From this source, a weekday and a weekend day demand profile per season were taken. The total energy consumption obtained does not match the average electricity consumption in Loop Head calculated in (Students EUF, 2020), for this reason, the values were scaled, to sum up, a total of 4245kWh/household/year. This value is the result of dividing the total energy consumption in the residential sector (EUF Students, 2020) by the total number of occupied households (EUF Students, 2020). The final values for the residential demand can be observed in Table 4-5. To calculate the hourly residential demand, the average demand of a household in Ireland was extracted from (Ricardo, 2020). University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 29 Table 4-5: Values for Residential Demand Profile Hour Autumn weekday hourly demand (kW) Autumn weekend hourly demand (kW) Winter weekday hourly demand (kW) Winter weekend hourly demand (kW) Spring weekday hourly demand (kW) Spring weekend hourly demand (kW) Summer weekday hourly demand (kW) Summer weekend hourly demand (kW) 0 0.385 0.435 0.460 0.522 0.404 0.438 0.379 0.416 1 0.280 0.329 0.329 0.385 0.292 0.345 0.273 0.317 2 0.242 0.267 0.280 0.311 0.255 0.283 0.242 0.261 3 0.230 0.242 0.261 0.273 0.236 0.249 0.230 0.239 4 0.230 0.236 0.249 0.261 0.236 0.236 0.224 0.236 5 0.236 0.236 0.267 0.264 0.236 0.245 0.230 0.236 6 0.292 0.261 0.342 0.298 0.298 0.261 0.280 0.252 7 0.479 0.342 0.565 0.401 0.479 0.354 0.447 0.339 8 0.615 0.479 0.777 0.556 0.603 0.491 0.541 0.447 9 0.541 0.584 0.677 0.696 0.541 0.590 0.503 0.547 10 0.510 0.640 0.615 0.758 0.516 0.643 0.479 0.600 11 0.479 0.634 0.590 0.795 0.479 0.668 0.460 0.612 12 0.497 0.677 0.597 0.826 0.497 0.730 0.472 0.656 13 0.491 0.684 0.597 0.833 0.497 0.690 0.460 0.640 14 0.454 0.584 0.553 0.736 0.454 0.584 0.429 0.559 15 0.454 0.547 0.578 0.724 0.460 0.559 0.435 0.531 16 0.528 0.578 0.727 0.795 0.541 0.590 0.516 0.544 17 0.721 0.671 1.038 0.997 0.708 0.674 0.671 0.609 18 0.783 0.746 1.143 1.119 0.727 0.736 0.677 0.637 19 0.851 0.858 1.112 1.109 0.708 0.715 0.634 0.628 20 0.851 0.851 1.019 1.028 0.733 0.746 0.590 0.593 21 0.826 0.802 0.963 0.938 0.814 0.805 0.621 0.597 22 0.746 0.721 0.864 0.845 0.777 0.743 0.671 0.646 23 0.578 0.597 0.671 0.687 0.609 0.615 0.559 0.569 Total 12.297 12.999 15.273 16.159 12.098 12.990 11.023 11.709 (Source: Author) University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 30 As expected, winter is the season with the highest electricity consumption, while summer is the one with the lowest demand. Regarding the daily profile demand, in general, in all the seasons there are two daily peaks at 9 am and 7 pm approximately, where the second one is the highest. This information will be highly relevant for households with rooftop solar systems, where there are different energy tariffs for energy sold and energy consumed to/from the main electric network. 4.2.2. Roof Top Solar for Residential Sector An interactive excel based model was developed by the team which can estimate the solar roof top potential of the farm and optimize the size of the system as per need. The tool permits the sizing of PV roof top system both for standalone residents and farms with residents. The details on the tool is provided under the farming sector in Chapter 5.2.2. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 31 5 Farming Sector 5.1 Circular Economy in Farms Agriculture is a major economic activity in Loop Head. As per the interview’s conducted by IC 2020 and virtual interactions with the local farmers during this study, dairy and beef farms were identified as centre of the farming sector in the peninsula. However, both sectors, more specifically the dairy farms are highly energy intensive with most of their energy demands met from the burning of fossil fuels. Though the farms are working towards reducing their carbon footprint and implementing sustainable operational practice, the linear make and waste system in these sectors may no longer be feasible considering the limitations in the natural resources availability. Even though no specific concerns were expressed by the farmers regarding their linear operation model, a transition towards a more circular approach for these farms in Loop Head could provide opportunity for long term economic, social, and environmental benefit. Therefore, IC 2020 has explored possible interventions to ensure a shift of the sector towards a vision of more circular operational model. Source: (Circle Economy, 2016) Figure 5-1: Circular Dairy Vision The Figure 5-1 extracted from (Circle Economy, 2016), provides a visual representation of a circular operating model in a dairy farm which is envisioned by this study. The Circle Economy University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 32 report focused on implementing dairy circularity defines it as “the approach to decouple economic growth from the consumption of natural resources, to achieve regenerative net positive impact” (Circle Economy, 2016). This study is thus a catalyst towards accomplishing this vision for dairy farms in Loop Head. All the environmental aspects of circularity detailed by the Dairy Sustainability framework (Circle Economy, 2016)are covered by the following targets for Loop Head farms. • Zero or negative GHG emissions • Closed soil nutrient cycles. • Zero waste generation • Water recovery and reuse • Soil and Land preservation • Biodiversity in the business model As an approach to achieve circularity in Loop Head farms, this study will focus on three aspects: making the farms in Loop Head more energy efficient, energy self-sufficient and have sustainable waste management. These working areas were identified based on the study conducted the previous year (IC 2020) and by understanding the needs and priorities of the local farmers through virtual interactions over the period of the study. Though these three areas do not fully cover the aspects of a circular economy, these are a starting point for the farms towards the transition. The open field disposal of cattle manure in farmlands for grass cultivation for grazing is a common practice in Loop Head. This provides a degree of soil nutrition recirculation but also result in emission of large amount of methane into the atmosphere. About 0.29 tons per annum of CO2 equivalent is estimated from a cattle (Blades et al., 2017). Considering the farm size in Loop Head vary from 25 to over 300 cattle, substantial emissions are expected from each farm. Also, the soil nutrient leaks, wastewater, and large volumes of unused agro by-product account for a waste of valuable resources in the farms. The implementation of circularity thus allows the mitigation of these emissions and adds value to the unused waste providing additional revenue source for the farm. In addition to the micro economic benefits the transition of the farm towards a circular University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 33 business model contributes towards the Irish vision of long-term low carbon energy systems (SEAI, 2020a). As mentioned above, this study has identified the three-working areas for initiating circularity in dairy farms. Energy efficiency is an important point of departure for circularity with an aim of decreasing the difference between the energy used and total energy consumed. The thermal energy requirement of farms is identified as potential immediate points of intervention for improvement along with the introduction of newer technologies are a possibility. With regards to self-sufficiency in energy/electricity generation, the possibility of installation of PV system has been identified as potential technology considering high local interest. Also, numerous success stories in individual solar systems in Loop Head and expected implementation of new feed-in tariffs in the coming years has made the technology a point of high interest. Further, survey results conducted at the beginning of the study verified high interest in the technology with many respondents showing willingness to invest in solar technology amongst the farmers. The final issues regarding the management of waste in farms is planned to be addressed with the studying the feasibility of anaerobic digestion technology for individual farms. National Irish studies show the storage of 81-83% of the manure in the form of slurry (Buckley, 2020). As a result, the emission of methane is quite high from the sector. Capturing the methane, while extracting energy from this waste source and also using the nutrient in the waste to restore nutrient cycle in the farm is an approach undertaken by the study. For both PV systems and anaerobic digestion systems, an interactive stand-alone tool was developed during the study, which allows the farmer to size and estimate the energy potential and financial feasibility of the technology in their respective farms. The working of the tool and findings over the study period are discussed in detail in the following sections. Also, recommendations on an individual scale towards promotion of circularity in the dairy farms of Loop Head have been presented. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 34 Thus, over the study period the team worked on understanding the feasibility and recommending possible avenues for the farming sector in Loop Head to transition towards circularity and as a result towards sustainability. 5.2 Implementing Circular Economy in Loop Head Farms The study was initiated with a general literature review to better understand the present farming sector in Loop Head and for better understanding of the technology planned to be studied and implemented in Loop Head for circularity. Though secondary literatures were referred to for data gathering, the level of interaction with the community were kept at the maximum throughout the study to get a better understanding on ground situation and get a better perspective on their motivation towards circularity. Also, during the study period, a workshop was carried out with the community to present the team’s view and objectives of the study. 5.2.1 Energy Auditing Benchmarking is particularly relevant as starting point of an energy audit since it allows estimating the potential savings that might be expected after conducting a complete energy audit. Therefore, the International Class team has conducted research on the different types of farms in Loop Head to find the average electricity consumption per livestock for each type of farm. By doing that we aim to provide to the farm owners the parameters that allow them to compare their electricity consumption with the average values of the community. A more detailed analysis is required for each individual farm to analyse where the electricity is consumed and provide tailored energy conservation measures for each farm. A detailed questionnaire (Appendix C) was developed to evaluate the appliances that consume more electricity in dairy farms and give recommendations to the farmers; however, due to time limitations this survey could not be conducted. This questionnaire can be useful for the self- assessment of the farmers as well as future studies. Nevertheless, general recommendations from literature to the dairy sector are relevant to mention to provide insight to the Loop Head farmers and encourage them to analyse in detail how the electricity is consumed in their farm. (John Upton et al., 2010) mentions key opportunities for reducing energy consumption which include: University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 35 • Eliminate energy wastage; fix all hot water leaks, insulate all hot water piping and refrigerant gas piping and use lights only when necessary. A leak as small as one litre per hour can waste 8,500 litres of hot water and 3,800 kWh per year. • Optimize plate cooling by increasing water flow to achieve the correct water to milk flow ratios. Increasing the milk to water flow ratios from 1:1 to 1:3 can reduce power consumed by the bulk tank by over 40%. • Consider using a variable speed drive controller on vacuum pumps. This can save over 60% on vacuum pump running costs. • Use energy efficient lighting. Electricity and Diesel Consumption on Farms With the objective of find information on the electricity and diesel consumption in the farms in Loop Head Peninsula, we have surveyed through an online questionnaire asking information about the type of farm, number of livestock, electricity, and diesel consumption. Some of the farmers are living on the farm and the electricity consumption provided in the interview includes both farm and house consumption. To analyse those cases in detail, we asked in the interviews if the electricity consumption includes house consumption or whether it is exclusively for the farm. In those cases where the values include the house consumption, we have deducted 350 kWh/month that is considered in this report as the average electricity consumption for a household in Loop Head. The online questionnaire submitted to the farmers of the community has been responded by seven farm owners. Additionally, to have as much information as possible, the results of the interviews with the farmers in the IC 2020 were also taken into consideration. A total number of thirteen farms were analysed, four of them are beef producers and nine are dairy farms. Beef production farms consume significantly less electricity than dairy farms per livestock unit, that is because beef production farms have no high energy-intensive appliances and most of the electricity consumption is due to lighting and some other minor consumptions such as electric University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 36 fences. Based on the interviews, the average electricity consumption for the beef production sector is 5.61 kWh/cattle/month. Dairy farms have a higher electricity consumption per cow due to electrical appliances required for milk production. In contrast to the beef production farms, according to (John Upton et al., 2010) lighting in dairy farms consumes only 10% of the electricity while milk cooling is the largest consumer of electricity (37%), followed by water heating (31%) and vacuum pumps (19%). Other items such as wash pumps, milk pumps, feed augers, and air compressors make up the balance (3%). Based on the information collected from the interviews, the average electricity consumption for the dairy sector is 17.44 kWh/cow/month. However, as we identified in the results a significant difference between the values for large dairy farms (more than 100 cows) and small dairy farms (100 cows or less), we have clustered the farms in those two groups and calculated the consequent average. Taking into consideration the farm size, the electricity consumption for large dairy farms is 14.09 kWh/cow/month and for small dairy farms, it is 29.19 kWh/cow/month. Those values are in accordance with literature parameters, according to (John Upton et al., 2010) electricity consumption per dairy cow milked, the figures vary from 4 kWh/cow/week to 7.3 kWh/cow/week. To obtain the monthly consumption, those values are multiplied by 52 and divided by 12, consequently, we obtain a range between 17.33 kWh/cow/month to 31.63 kWh/cow/month. The results of the interviews performed during International Class 2020 and 2021 are summarized in the table below. Table 5-1: Results of interviews on electricity demand Identification Farm Type Livestock Electricity consumption kWh/month kWh/ Livestock/Month Farm 1 Beef farm 80 580 7.25 Farm 2 Beef farm 60 100 1.67 Farm 3 Beef farm 25 70 2.80 Farm 4 Beef farm 320 3429 0.72 University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 37 Farm 5 Small dairy farm 85 3422 40.26 Farm 6 Small dairy farm 80 1450 18.13 Farm 7 Large dairy farm 180 4115 22.86 Farm 8 Large dairy farm 110 1650 15.00 Farm 9 Large dairy farm 162 2058 12.70 Farm 10 Large dairy farm 102 1500 14.71 Farm 11 Large dairy farm 120 1189 9.91 Farm 12 Large dairy farm 180 2632 14.62 Farm 13 Large dairy farm 102 900 8.82 Regarding the diesel consumption, as there were no significant differences because of the farm size, therefore, it was not taken into consideration for the calculation of the averages. For the beef production sector, the average monthly diesel consumption per cattle is 3.77 litre/cattle/month. According to the interviews dairy sector has a lower diesel consumption with 3.27 litre/cow/month. The results of the interviews are listed in the table below. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 38 Table 5-2: Results of interviews on diesel demand Identification Farm Type Livestock Diesel consumption litre/month Litre/Livestock/Mont h Farm 1 Beef farm 80 200 2.50 Farm 2 Beef farm 60 125 2.08 Farm 3 Beef farm 25 100 4.00 Farm 4 Beef farm 320 2083 6.51 Farm 5 Small dairy farm 85 417 4.90 Farm 6 Small dairy farm 80 150 1.88 Farm 7 Large dairy farm 180 83 0.46 Farm 8 Large dairy farm 110 400 3.64 Farm 9 Large dairy farm 162 167 1.03 Farm 10 Large dairy farm 102 533 5.23 Farm 11 Large dairy farm 120 550 4.58 Farm 12 Large dairy farm 180 500 2.78 Farm 13 Large dairy farm 102 500 4.90 University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 39 5.2.2 PV System design for Farms As an approach to promote the community use of PV systems, this study aims to assist Loop Head farmers to identify suitable PV system size for their farms and understand its financial viability. The analysis was, therefore, developed considering the possible factors that people could find useful to make these decisions. The activities were divided into three different stages: i. Stage I: Definition of expected outputs: During this stage, all the possible information that could help in the decision-making process was proposed, analysed, and selected. In the end, some economic, technical, and environmental factors were selected. ii. Stage II: Collection of required inputs Once the required outputs were defined, the process of data collection started. Each one of the outputs requires different inputs to be calculated and all of them were listed and searched. During this stage, specific data from the Peninsula was the priority. For this, the previous report on the field (Students EUF, 2020) was consulted and surveys were designed, applied, and analysed. When it was not possible to find specific data from Loop Head, national data were used like in the case of prices for different configurations of solar rooftop systems (Government of Ireland, 2019). iii. Stage III: Calculation development With all the required information collected, in the last stage all the outputs defined in the first stage were calculated. Microsoft Excel was the selected software to develop the Solar Calculator, due to its high flexibility and wide range of uses. This tool was designed to be used at the individual level to provide financial and technical information about a possible investment in the mentioned technology. Dairy farms demand The farms dedicated to milk production have an electricity generation that depends directly on the number of cows. From the interviews, the next functions were calculated: When the number of cows (C) is more than 100: University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 40 Weekly electricity consumption = C * 14.09 kWh/cow When the number of cows (C) is less or equal to 100: Weekly electricity consumption = C * 29.19 kWh/cow Once the amount of energy is calculated, how that energy is consumed during the day can be presented in hourly resolution. For this purpose, the shape is shown in Figure 5-2 (J. Upton et.al, 2013) is used. This shape shows the measurements of energy consumption for 22 dairy farms for two consecutive days in Ireland (J. Upton et.al, 2013) . Source: (J. Upton et.al, 2013) Figure 5-2: Example of electricity consumption in Irish Farms According to (J. Upton et.al, 2013), the highest demand in a dairy farm is milk cooling (30-40% of the total consumption). The results make sense since it is known that milk is extracted twice per day: at 8 am and 4 pm and the two peaks of this load are present in the used shape. Cattle farms demand To calculate the hourly load profile of cattle farms, a similar procedure to the one applied to dairy farms was performed. From the surveys, it was defined that on average each cow/bull represents University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 41 an energy consumption of 5.61 kWh/week. No differences were found between big and small farms. Regarding the hourly profile, it was assumed that the load is constant in the period between 6 am and 6 pm every day, when someone is present on the farm developing daily activities related to the business. In conclusion, the calculated energy consumption is divided every day into 12 hours. Total electricity consumption farming sector Current estimations according to (Central Statistics Office, 2020) affirm that the livestock for dairy and cattle is 11,271 and 7,675, respectively. The 7,675 cows for dairy purposes were divided into two groups: 3,698 in large farms and 3,959 in small farms. Knowing the total amounts, the hourly load demand was calculated using the characteristics demands per sector developed in the previous sections of this report. The result can be observed in Figure 5-3. This demand profile is used for community-level calculations. (Source: Author) Figure 5-3: Total Hourly Demand Farming Sector. Analysing Farm Level Solar PV systems Solar PV systems are called to be the largest source of microgeneration in Ireland (Ricardo, 2020). The current investment costs allow this technology to be financially interesting for household University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 42 owners due to the potential savings that it can generate. Additionally, the Ireland government supports this technology as part of the Climate Action Plan 2019 and currently offers grants for new investors. In July 2021 is expected to be available the feed-in tariff (Government of Ireland, 2019), which will allow the owners of microgeneration to sell all their surplus of energy to the gird. Currently, that energy was just taken by the main grid without receiving any payment. The new policies will encourage more people to install rooftop systems, and those people are going to require information that is more specific. For instance, investment and annual savings are very important to make a final decision regarding this kind of investment. In order to support a well-informed decision-making process, a technical and financial model was developed for the Loop Head community at the individual level. This model will be called in this report Solar Calculator. Households and farmers owners can use this model regardless of their background or expertise on energy topics, since the required inputs are parameters that every person knows or can find easily. The interface and questions can be observed in Error! Reference s ource not found.. (Source: Author) University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 43 Figure 5-4: Inputs rooftop solar systems tool. The inputs can be divided into three categories: in the first one is the values used to calculate the electricity demand based on the demand profiles calculated at the beginning of this chapter. For this purpose, the monthly energy consumption is used, if it is a household or a farm with a household, beef livestock, and dairy livestock. In the second category are the inputs used to calculate financial parameters: price per kWh and monthly energy consumption. Finally, in the third category are the inputs that are intended for the user to change and find the most optimal system size, based on the comparison of the Solar Calculator and their resources and expectations. The tool can provide very specific and understandable financial and technical results based on the next main assumptions: Inflation: The inflation in Ireland has been in a range of 5% to -1.8% in the period between 1985 and 2020 (Statista, 2021a). This parameter has a big impact on financial calculations performed in the present report and should be carefully selected. In Figure 5-5 can be seen the historical values of inflation of the mentioned period. Additionally, the projections for the next 3 years (2021, 2022, and 2023) are available in the same figure. Based on this information, all the calculations performed will use constant inflation of 2% per year. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 44 Source: (Statista, 2021a) Figure 5-5: Inflation in Ireland. Electricity rates: In the last 10 years, the price of electricity for a household in Ireland has increased 33% approximately (Statista, 2021b). High values of electricity are an important motivation to invest in renewable energies and consider energy efficiency measures. Furthermore, expectations about the future prices of electricity are highly relevant when calculating financial models during the investment decision-making processes. In Figure 5-6 can be observed the changes in electricity rates in Ireland in the period between 2010 and 2020. It is possible to identify that there was almost a constant increment in the prices between 2010 and 2014, but between 2014 and 2020 the price has been around 0.24 EUR/kWh. Based on this, the electricity rate is going to be considered to increase only due to the inflation in the next years. -3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 1 9 8 5 1 9 8 7 1 9 8 9 1 9 9 1 1 9 9 3 1 9 9 5 1 9 9 7 1 9 9 9 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 3 2 0 0 5 2 0 0 7 2 0 0 9 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 3 2 0 1 5 2 0 1 7 2 0 1 9 2 0 2 1 * 2 0 2 3 * 2 0 2 5 * University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 45 Source: (Statista, 2021b) Figure 5-6: Electricity rated in households Feed-in tariff: At present, the feed-in tariff has not been implemented in Ireland, but according to (Government of Ireland, 2019), it is expected to be implemented in July 2021. In order to perform financial calculations, the average expected values for this tariff presented in the Economic and policy advice to support the design and implementation of the new microgeneration support scheme in Ireland (Ricardo, 2020) report was used. The values from 2031 to 2041 are the result of considering the same tariff from 2030 plus its inflation. The values can be observed in Table 5-3. 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 2 0 1 0 S 1 2 0 1 0 S 2 2 0 1 1 S 1 2 0 1 1 S 2 2 0 1 2 S 1 2 0 1 2 S 2 2 0 1 3 S 1 2 0 1 3 S 2 2 0 1 4 S 1 2 0 1 4 S 2 2 0 1 5 S 1 2 0 1 5 S 2 2 0 1 6 S 1 2 0 1 6 S 2 2 0 1 7 S 1 2 0 1 7 S 2 2 0 1 8 S 1 2 0 1 8 S 2 2 0 1 9 S 1 2 0 1 9 S 2 2 0 2 0 S 1 Eu ro c en ts p er k ilo w h at t - h o u r University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 46 Table 5-3: Feed-In Tariff Used in the Model (Source: Author) Since the motivations for installing a rooftop solar system can be different, the outputs of the Solar Calculator were selected to satisfy the most common questions like total cost, required roof area, payback period, percentage of energy self-supplied among others. The outputs and the interface can be observed in Figure 5-7. (Source: Author) Figure 5-7: Outputs rooftop solar systems too Year Feed in tarif model [EURc/kWh] Year Feed in tarif model [EURc/kWh] 2022 5,94 2032 7,61 2023 6,69 2033 7,76 2024 6,79 2034 7,92 2025 7,65 2035 8,08 2026 7,20 2036 8,24 2027 6,80 2037 8,40 2028 6,87 2038 8,57 2029 7,31 2039 8,74 2030 7,31 2040 8,92 2031 7,46 2041 9,09 Results Investment 9180 Euros Required roof area 42 m² Energy demand self produced 19% Energy bought from the grid 81% Payback period 9,38 Years Internal Rate of Return (IRR) 9,40% Excess Electricity Sold 1046,84 KWh NPV O&M costs 712,24 Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) 0,09 Euros/KWh Total NPV of investment 4431,14 Euros University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 47 For most of the users, the values presented previously could be sufficient, but in favour of clarity extra graphical information is produced. The energy balance for a typical day in January and July is shown (Figure 5-8), giving an idea of the seasonal changes. This energy balance shows when the energy produces by the rooftop solar system is frequently sold, providing useful information regarding demand-side management. Figure 5-8: July - Energy balance Typical weekday and weekend day (Source: Author) Finally, a comparison between the annual electricity bills with and without a PV system is provided (Figure 5-9). For people who are looking for savings in terms of money, the expected investment cost and the yearly savings can be analysed in order to decide if this project reaches their financial expectations. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 48 Figure 5-9: Annual electricity bill value. Source: (Statista, 2021b) In general, based on the LCOE and the expected values for the feed-in tariff, the most beneficial installed capacity in the residential sector for average households is around 3kW, bigger systems would increase the percentage of sold energy. From a financial point of view, this is undesirable because the LCOE is higher than the feed-in tariff. In any case, the use of the tool could lead to a better understanding of every particular case. In the farming sector, it makes no sense to present an average recommended installed capacity, since the energy demand in the farms is in a big range. On the other hand, farms have bigger electricity demand in comparison with the residential sector, and in most cases, bigger roof areas. These two factors create the appropriate conditions to take advantage of bigger rooftop solar systems, but the size of the system should be carefully selected aiming to consume as much as possible the generated energy. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 49 5.2.3 Anaerobic Digester Design for Farms As mentioned, focus of the study is on farm level anaerobic digestion system. The following steps were followed by the team during the international class: • The present waste management practice in the farms were assessed in detail and the view and understanding of anaerobic digestion technologies in the farm were analysed. • A model in excel was developed to calculate different parameters of the biogas production in small scale. More details of the model are explained further in this report. • After the creation of the model three scenarios were selected to make an analysis of the results for small scale biogas. Analysing Farm level biogas systems A major attraction of AD system is the associated multiple revenue streams (World Biogas Association, 2019), the possibility of which was analysed during the course of the study in the farms of Loop Head. For this study, the possibility of three different end uses on a farm level have been analysed which include direct thermal application, electricity generation and biomethane upgradation. However, biomethane upgradation has technical and financial limitations. Gas upgradation technology require considerably higher rates of gas generation and have higher investment and operation costs. Only systems with gas generation of over 100Nm3/hr can be deemed technically feasible for an upgraded biomethane end use (IRENA, 2013). Also, to maintain a financial viability the selection of waste mixture needs to be done such that maximum biogas can be generated from the same digester volume. Small scale digester could be an appropriate technology for the management of waste generated on a farm. Thus, this study focuses on the possibility of intervention of such technologies for the farms in Loop Head. The operating temperatures Optimum anaerobic digestion process takes place in Mesophilic (35-40°C) and Thermophilic (55- 60°C) temperature ranges. Though reaction rates also occur in ambient temperature ranges, the low temperature averages make it unfeasible for the case Loop Head. Hence mandating the need to maintain the either mesophilic or thermophilic range. This requires the need of a digester heating University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 50 system to ensure that the reaction inside the digester is maintained at the required rates. The heating requirements can be supplied by the use of the self-generated biogas, consuming 10-20% (XD Consulting, 2020) of the energy generated depending on the type of operating conditions. In the mesophilic range the hydraulic retention time (HRT) is estimated at 25 days and 10 days for thermophilic (Environmental Science and Engineering Magazine, 2020). The change in the HRT reduces the digester volume by almost 60% resulting in substantial decrease in the investment costs. But a major trade-off is brought by the increased operational cost. Hence selection of the operation temperature is one of the most important part of the process and is also defined by the rate at which waste is generated and the anticipated end use. Biogas tool for pre-feasibility of farm-scale AD systems To analyse the pre-feasibility of an individual farm scale biogas digester in Loop Head, an Excel based tool was developed over the course of the study. The tool provides a platform for any farmer to assess the potential of generation of biogas and energy with inputs of the waste available in the farm. The tool also provides an estimate on the investment costs, annual operating costs, and expected earning/savings in terms of the revenue generated from the farm. The tool has been incorporated in the final model developed by the study and the manual for its use has been provided along with this report. An average cattle housing in Ireland is estimated at of 121 days in dairy farms (Buckley, 2020). Similar trend is observed in Loop Head. Assuming this and considering a factor of safety for the collection rates, only 20% of the produced manure has been assumed to be available for the generation of the biogas by the tool. The value concur with the assumptions by (Sean O’Connor et al., 2020). The biogas yield from cattle manure is comparatively lower than other sources such as agriculture residue or even household organic waste. Hence co-digestion is a common practice opted by farms to increase the biogas production even with the same plant size and is recommended by the tool. The developed model was run for three farms in Loop Head covering both small and large farms in the region. The following output were obtained under different scenarios. Farm A housing 25 University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 51 cattle, farm B with 102 and farm C with 320 cattle were considered for the analysis and also for the test the tool for any bugs. Important parameters under different end use case have been presented in the Table 5-4. From the input provided regarding the number of cattle in the farm, the tool also estimates the amount of silage requirement for an optimal gas generation keeping in consideration both technical and financial parameters. The calculation is based on the use of the co-digestate. However, the user also has the option to opt for calculation with only the cattle manure. Table 5-4: Comparison of AD operational parameters Total Number of Cows 25 102 320 Total waste per day (kg/day) 375.00 1,530.00 4,800.00 Suitable silage requirement (kg/day) 650.00 (12.99 ha) 2,650.00 (55.54 ha) 8,300.00 (173.97 ha) Daily Biogas Production (m3/day) 85.99 350.82 1,100.62 Total Input Feed (kg/day) 2,738.54 11,173.00 35,053.29 Water Requirement (litre per day) 1,713.66 6,991.74 21,934.89 Compost Generation (kg/day) 370.71 1,512.49 4,745.08 Digester Volume (m3) mesophilic 68.46 279.33 876.33 Digester Volume (m3) thermophilic 27.39 111.73 350.33 Source: Author The figures illustrate the wide range of AD systems that fall under the individual-farm level biogas in Loop Head. Though the tool does not define specific technology for biogas production, a single technology will not be applicable for such large range and hence the best technology needs to be identified for each farm size or the technology needs to be optimized based on the waste volume. Also as mentioned above the decrease in the digester volume in thermophilic operation range as a result of decreased HRT can also be observed. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 52 The following tables detail the energy and financial outputs of the three sample cases. The thermal parameters are available in Table 5-5. Economies of scale play a substantial role in the investment and operations of costs of a biogas plant. Hence the limitations of the tool regarding financial estimation can be observed. The investment costs are predicted based on a cost curve derived from regional AD system prices that were acquired from regional companies. However, as only limited regional data could be acquired for limited size range of AD systems, the cost curve is not able to give exact figures on the investment. Also, these values were observed to be slightly higher than the global average values, but nevertheless regional values were prioritized over global. Also, the investment costs are specific to technology in use and the service provider. Hence the tool is only able to provide a tentative cost and further detailed financial analysis is recommended. The investment cost of 2.5 M€ Euros for the Farm C is staggeringly high and investment on it in the absence of any financial support or grant may not be feasible on an individual level. The Operations and Maintenance costs are more realistic. The thermal energy potential is calculated assuming the combustion of the gas in a boiler. The revenue in the thermal case, provide a monetary value to the gas produced rather than direct inflow of cash. Table 5-5: Thermal end-use Thermal Operational Temperature 25 102 320 Thermal Energy Potential (kWh/day) N/A 371.45 1,515.54 4,754.66 Total Investment Cost (Euros) mesophilic 243,290.73 464,560.31 2,527,345.40 Thermophilic 231,565.10 269,370.82 606,218.57 Total annual operational cost (Euros/Year) mesophilic 2,999.00 12,237.16 38,391.09 Thermophilic 4,393.35 17,924.88 56,234.90 University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 53 Total Revenues (Euros/Year) N/A 7,450.19 30,396.76 95,362.38 Source: Author For electrical end use the electricity potential is calculated assuming that the produced biogas is used in a CHP engine to generate electricity and heat. The heat generated can be partly used for heating the digester or meeting the heating needs of the farm. As mentioned above the high investment costs here as well are based on regional values contributes to making the project financially unsuitable without support. The revenues are calculated based on a feed in tariff of 0.14Euros/kWh which was determined as an average cost in the region as per community discussions, but the tool provides an option to change the tariff rates. Table 5-6: Electrical end-use Electrical Operational Temperature 25 102 320 Electrical Energy Potential (kWh/day) N/A 139.30 568.33 1,783.00 Total Investment Cost (Euros) (Inclusive of CHP) mesophilic 247,585.00 482,083.83 2,582,321.17 Thermophilic 235,860.00 286,894.35 661,194.34 Total annual operational cost (Euros/Year) mesophilic 3,956.97 16,144.43 50,649.20 Thermophilic 5,351.02 21,832.15 68,493.01 Total Revenues (Euros/Year) N/A 10,500.78 42,843.20 134,410.04 Source: Author University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 54 For the biomethane upgradation end use option, the tool does not permit it for plants with less than 100 cattle due to technical restrictions of the technology. The upgradation process requires higher gas flow rates. Also, high financial investments and considerable operations and maintenance cost make the technology unfeasible for application on a farm-scale biogas plant. Even though a wide variety of end use applications are possible from upgradation to Renewable Natural Gas (RNG), the study would not recommend the technology for farms in Loop Head. Table 5-7: Biomethane Upgradation end-use Biomethane Upgradation Operational Temperature 25 102 320 RNG Energy Potential (kWh/day) N/A - 1,760.81 5,524.10 Total Investment Cost (Euros) mesophilic - 541,168.00 2,767,683.24 Thermophilic - 345,978.00 846,556.42 Total annual operational cost (Euros/Year) mesophilic - 35,999.63 112,940.00 Thermophilic - 41,687.34 130,783.82 Total Revenues (Euros/Year) N/A - 49,008.32 153,751.60 Source: Author Results and Recommendations The use of AD in developed countries has been observed to incline towards managing of waste and treatment of high COD waste as opposed to the focus on energy generation in developing countries (frontiers in Energy Research, 2014). A potential farm system for Loop Head would cover both aspects and provide a leap towards circularity and sustainability. The technology has University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 55 showed technical feasibility for varying farm sizes with potential for substantial energy generation to meet the demand of the farms. However high investment cost is seen as a primary hindrance even though the generated revenues are considerable to meet the operational costs. Though a minimum of 300 cattle threshold is estimated as a requirement for electrical end-use of biogas to be feasible on farm level (The Minnesota Project, 2014), CHP is also seen as a possibility for farms in the peninsula. The results of the three sample farm types showed significant potential in terms of energy generation in the farms. Regarding electricity produced this would be able to cover the entire electricity demand of the farm if used a base load. The avoided environmental impact through the abatement of CO2 emissions is another benefit. However, implementing on a farm level, even with reasonable revenue generation did not deem the system financially feasible due to the high investment costs. Even though the financial performance can be improved with the use of specific technology and region-specific values, obtaining a reasonable payback period seems less likely. Some suggestion and recommendations have been put together for making individual-farm scale biogas more attractive for Loop Head. • Primarily a support scheme would be required to roll out the biogas industry in the community. This could be done through the support and initiation of the authoritative body, but also with active participation of the local community (farmers) (Irish bioenerby association, 2019). • Investment costs can be further reduced if high level of interest can be generated in the community, creating a market for the service providers. • The high initial investment costs make the realization of the project highly impossible. However the Irish Bioenergy Association recommend the possibility of subsidy of up to 40-50% which would provide a more favourable financial parameters (Irish Bioenergy Association and Composting and Anaerobic Digestion of Ireland, 2019). With these subsidy rates the tool showed a possible payback period between 10-15 years. The approach of using carbon taxes to fund AD projects has been suggested. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 56 • Another approach to reduce the investment costs could be through the introduction of low interest loan schemes for potential AD owners. • The digestate post AD process provides a good opportunity for revenue generation. However the tool calculates the revenue at minimal costs of 0.025 Euros/kg (XD Consulting, 2020). Better market for the fertilizer can be identified with improved rates. 10-fold higher fertilizer price were also observed during the research of the study in other parts of the world. • In case of electricity generation improved feed in tariff or incentives for generators could be an approach that can be implemented on a community level. • Though biomethane upgradation was not deemed feasible in the earlier section, the future expansion of natural gas grid in Loop Head or the initiation of district heating could provide opportunity for gas upgrading. The tool estimates the revenue of biomethane based on natural gas prices (0.03 Euros/kWh) (Irish Bioenergy Association and Composting and Anaerobic Digestion of Ireland, 2019), but its application in the transportation sector could provide more profitable opportunities and thus can be further looked into. To make the biomethane end use more feasible the Irish Bioenergy Association has also suggested the need for an additional 0.06 Euros/kWh to bridge the gap between the market rice of NG and the cost of production of biogas (Irish bioenerby association, 2019) . The difference in the price can be better covered based on the CO2 costs in the EU certification market. 5.3 Conclusion The transition of farms in Loop Head towards a circular economic model has been identified as the way forward to address issues concerning poor energy efficiency, fossil fuel dependence and mismanagement of cattle manure. The study focused on addressing each of these issues and provides point of initiation for the community towards circularity starting with a detailed energy audit is seen as the first steps to addressing the energy efficiency issues in the farms. Considering the high local interest in the technology, Solar PV systems were identified as the ideal technology for making the farms self-dependent on their energy generation. The larger roof areas of farms make the technology even more appealing. In addition, the increase in the efficiency and decrement University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 57 in the price for solar panels during the last 10 years have allowed the economic viability of rooftop solar systems in Ireland. The tool developed over the course of the study determined an average payback period of 9 years, relatively attractive compared to general payback period of a renewable energy system. The possibility of managing the manure produced in the farms through the installation of farm scale anaerobic digesters was analysed. A tool to calculate the potential of biogas in the farms and estimate costs was developed during the study. Though the technology showed technical feasibility, the high investment costs made the technology may does not make it economically attractive. Hence without incentives implementing the technology on a farm level would be difficult. All in all, switching to a circular economic model could be beneficial for the sector and could contribute toward the Irish vision of long-term low carbo economic system. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 58 6 Community Energy Modelling A community’s initiative to promote and establish sustainable energy system necessitates thorough analysis of the local energy system - assessment of community’s energy demand and energy production potential. Besides, identification of suitable generation technologies, willingness of the community to invest in those technologies, and polices to support the development of sustainable energy system in the community play an important role to shape the community’s future energy system. Based on the requirement, community energy modelling can be performed to integrate these factors for supporting investment decision as well as assessing scenarios to plan for the strategic development of energy system. The process of community energy modelling involves number of steps starting from identification of the local problem, interest, objectives and financial resource identification. To identify the correct strategy, modelling process involves further steps like data collection, estimation, and calculation, see Figure 6-1, (PlanEnergi, 2010). Each of these steps require inputs data on the community which can be collected via interviews, questionnaires, or statistical records. The data collected are then processed to estimate the economic solution for the community energy system. Source: (PlanEnergi, 2010) Figure 6-1: Process of Community Energy Modelling Identify local problem, interest, objective, and resources Collect Data on energy consumption and fuels Collect data on available generation units and prospective generation resources Develop Input Output Matrix Develop of Business As Usual Case Conduct Calculation and Estimation Scenario Analysis Develop an Action Plan University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 59 6.1 Energy Modelling for Loop Head Community In order to support Loop Head’s initiative to establish a sustainable energy system in the peninsula, an interactive energy modelling tool, IC Model 2021, was developed in Microsoft Excel. The tool was developed with an objective to provide the basis for investment decisions, support operational decisions, and serve as a platform for different stakeholders to analyse different scenarios, see Figure 6-2. (Source: Author) Figure 6-2: The purpose of Loop Head Energy Model The model aims to provide an overall outlook of the Loop Head energy by integrating following information: i. individual energy demand of each energy consuming sectors (residential, farming, and commercial) ii. possible globally proven renewable energy generation technologies in the peninsula, associated technical parameters, generation pattern of each technology, and associated cost of each technology iii. existing policies in the peninsula Besides the possibility to analyse entire energy system in Loop Head, the model also targets to assist individual community members: residential households and farms to identify suitable University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 60 solution to achieve energy sustainability. To address this, the model includes individual worksheets on the Excel model where interested stakeholders can provide inputs and analyse the scenario. The excel model developed by IC 2021 is an expansion of the model developed by IC 2020 which was initiated to identify possible improvement opportunities and apply those improvements. IC Model 2021 has been designed for Loop Head in compliance with CRaFT model: consistency, robustness, flexibility, and transparency as suggested by Liam Bastick (Liam Bastick, 2018). Subjecting the IC 2020’s model to Craft criteria, improvement opportunities, listed in Table 6-1 were observed and addressed in 2021’s model Firstly, as promised by the CRaFT model, the consistency of the excel model has been developed such that it is easily understandable by users once they become familiar with both the model's purpose and content. Secondly, based on the mathematical accuracy and absence of errors, the model’s robustness has been ensured and verified by IC 2021 groups internally and the potential users from the Loop Head community. Further, to enable the flexibility of the model, the model is designed in such a way that it can change various assumptions or input parameters to see how the changes affect various outputs. Lastly, by including sources of data used, the transparency of the model has been ensured. Table 6-1: Additional features IC 2021 Model Topic IC 2021 Key Performance Indicators (KPI’s) Includes KPIs such as: Levelized cost of energy, cost of the specific energy system, the share of renewable energy, and financial parameters such as Internal Rate of Return (IRR), and payback period Visualization Graphical and user interactive model Flexibility Provides the flexibility to adapt new assumptions and conditions on generation, demand, tariff, grants, population, households, efficiency of technologies, investment cost, population of cattle. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 61 Data Resolution Capable to show hourly variation in the system electricity demand, generation, CO2 emission, and electricity imported from grid. Energy Storage Adapts to see the system response with incorporation of battery storage in the system Variability of Solar and Wind Energy Hourly resolution of solar and wind generation in the peninsula is incorporated Model Structure Easy Operation and visually easy to understand 6.2 Excel Modelling Tool Development The IC Model 2021, an interactive energy model designed for Loop Head community, provides a platform for the users to understand the status quo of existing energy system in Loop Head whilst providing the flexibility to integrate renewable energy technologies and study the effect of integrating such technologies to the overall energy system of the peninsula. Simultaneously, this model also provides additional interface for interested individual users from residential and farming sector to understand and analyse the methods and financial benefits of adopting energy efficiency measures in residential households and installing renewable energy technologies in farms. The development of this model, therefore, can be broadly categorized into two sections (Figure 6-3). (Source: Author) Figure 6-3: Sections of IC Model 2021 University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 62 i. Overall Community Energy Modelling section The overall community energy model section focuses on providing information on the entire energy system of the peninsula. This includes information related to the sectoral energy demand, necessary energy imports, CO2 emissions, energy generation prospects from installation of renewable energy technology, energy efficiency method of residential sector, and the associated costs. Besides, it also provides the possibility to analyse the effect of implementation of policy measures in the peninsula in terms of grants and feed-in tariff. The section provides the possibility to study the hourly operation of electricity sector in the peninsula in terms of electricity demand, imports, generation, and CO2 emissions. ii. Individual Single User Modelling section The individual single user modelling section, which is also incorporated in the IC Model 2021, will provide three interfaces for the individual users to analyse on listed topics: a. energy efficiency measures in residential buildings b. PV installation in residential building and/or farms c. anaerobic digester in farms The individual users who wish to have a detailed knowledge on application of energy efficiency measures in the residential sectors can directly use the related interface in IC Model 2021 and obtain the information on the retrofitting measures, cost of building retrofitting, and percentage of energy saved from applying the retrofitting measures. Similarly, in the interface related with the PV installation, the interested users can find information for fitting optimal size of solar PV systems in their residential buildings and/or farms and calculate the costs associated with it. In the third interface, which is related only to farms, interested users can estimate the size of anaerobic digesters for their farms whilst also calculating the associated investment and operation costs for the digester system. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 63 The methodology for development of each of these individual interface and related calculation are detailed in Chapter 5.2.2. 6.3 Methodology for Overall Community Energy Model Development Figure 6-4 presents the methodology adopted for developing overall community energy model section in IC Model 2021. (Source: Author) Figure 6-4: Conceptual Framework for Community Energy Model Development 6.3.1 Identification of Major Energy Consuming Sectors and Demand Estimation Three major energy consuming sectors i) Residential Sector ii) Farming Sector, and iii) Commercial Sector were identified in Loop Head peninsula. The total annual energy demand in Loop Head, which comprises electricity and heat demand was calculated separately for each of these sectors and integrated in the model. For calculating total electricity and heat demand in Loop Head, equation 4-1 was considered. Identification of Major energy consuming sectors Sectoral Energy demand estimation Energy generation technologies Energy import and CO2 emission Calculation Financial Calculation Scenario Analysis Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 64 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 ( 6-1) The total annual sectoral demand of each of the sector was calculated by identifying the final energy intensity and activity level associated with each of these sectors. The total annual energy demand in the Loop Head was calculated to be 40,037.32 MWh/y, see Figure 6-5. (Source: Author) Figure 6-5: Sectoral Energy Demand in Loop Head Residential Sector Energy Demand The total residential energy demand in the Loop Head, which comprises electricity and heat demands was calculated separately and integrated in the model. i) Electricity Demand in Residential Sector: The total electricity demand by the residential sector is approximately 11.50 GWh. The estimation of total electricity demand was done using equation Error! Reference source not found., where t he average per capita residential electricity consumption of Ireland (1.72 MWh/a) was used as the University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 65 final energy intensity of the residential sector in Loop Head (SEAI, 2016a). Similarly, average household size, obtained from Central Statistics Office (CSO, 2018) for each electoral division was considered as the activity level. 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = ∑(𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑒ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑒ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 ii) Heat Demand in Residential Sector: The total heat demand in Loop Head is about 24.4GWh. This is divided into space heating and water heating demand in residential and commercial sectors. According to the heat demand atlas of the Sustainable energy Authority of Ireland (SEAI, 2018b), the total heat demand for the residential sector comprising the 10 electoral districts making up the loop is 18.74 GWh separated into space heating and water heating. The total space heating demand estimate for the residential sector is 16.9 GWh and the total water heating demand is 1.82 GWh. According to the 2018 final energy end use estimate by SEAI, the space heating and water heating per capita for Ireland are 4.098 MWh/y and 1.29 MWh/y. This shows that the current heating demand in the loop is higher than the national average based on the resident population and the number of occupied houses on the Loop Head. Therefore, heat demand per household has been estimated based on the national average heat demand and the excess demand in the residential sector is assumed to be the demand of the 1,590 holiday homes in the Loop Head. With this assumption, the total heat demand per holiday house is 2.73 MWh/y. iii) Heat saving from retrofitting: From the cost curve, as described in Chapter 4.1.4, a best-fit third-degree polynomial equation was approximated to estimate the cumulative cost of retrofitting for every percentage of heat saved from implementing retrofitting measures. 𝑦 = 213.8𝑥3 − 80.7𝑥2 + 22.8𝑥 where y = Cumulative retrofitting cost in Euros; x = Heating saving in percentage of total heat demand in MWh. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 66 Farming Sector Electricity Demand The Loop Head’s farming sector consumes, approximately 2,770 MWh of electricity on annual basis. For calculating the Farming Sector’s electricity demand, the farming sector was divided into three subcategories: i) small dairy farms, ii) large dairy farms, and iii) beef farm. For each type of farm, the average electricity required by the cattle type in respective farm was considered as the final energy intensity and the total number of the cattle in those categories of farm in the peninsula was considered as the activity level. While the average electricity consumption was calculated based on interviews, the total number of dairy cows and beef cattle in the peninsula was based on the statistical records obtained from CSO. The detail calculation of the farming sector’s electricity demand is described in Chapter 5.2.2. Commercial Sector Energy Demand i) Electricity Demand in Commercial Sector The total commercial electricity demand on the Loop Head is about 1.3 GWh. The commercial sector electricity demand comprises of the total estimated electricity demand by the five hotels on the Loop Head with annual electricity demand of each hotel room to be 12.56 MWh/y (EUF, 2020). This annual electricity intensity of each hotel room is considered as the final energy intensity and the number of hotel rooms in the Loop Head peninsula, i.e. 106, was considered as the activity level. The value seems high for a room of a hotel, however, due to unavailability of updated data and the limitation to validate the existing data, same old information from IC 2020 report has been adopted. It is highly recommended to validate and use updated data in the model. ii) Heat Demand in Commercial Sector The total commercial heat demand on Loop Head is about 3.2 GWh (SEAI, 2018b). The commercial sector heat demand consists of the total estimated heat demand by the five hotels on the Loop Head was 0.715 GWh/y (EUF, 2020), and heat demand by Water World and other shops, offices etc. was 2.49 GWh/y. The estimated average heat demand per hotel room is estimated to be 6.75 MWh/y, this value is considered as the final energy intensity for hotel consumption and total number of hotel rooms taken as the activity level. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 67 6.3.2 Hourly Electricity Demand Profile of Different Sectors The study for the transformation to entire renewable energy-based power system requires detailed assessment of the load profile and the available renewable energy sources. Integrating the potential renewable energy sources, mostly wind and solar, introduces the challenge of intermittency. Often, for an uninterrupted supply, the intermittent behaviour of these available resources requires to be matched with the time varying power consumption of the region, i.e. the load profile. This enables the operators to increase system’s reliability and optimize the system cost by addressing subjects of concern on how to: operate the system, size the storage requirements, maintain the system stability, and curtail the surplus energy. To address these subjects, analysis of load profile and identification of following situations are crucial (IRENA, 2018, p. 10) i. Minimum level of load in the system and frequency of its occurrence. ii. Times of the day where there is sharp increase or decrease if the load. In order to assess the situation, load profile with higher resolution (containing at least the hourly variations of the load) is preferred. Higher resolution of the load profile aids better flexibility of the generation units for system operation (IRENA, 2018). Usually, the best available data on load profile are the recorded data from the system operators. However, in the absence of the real load profiles for the community, synthetic load profiles can be generated based on a standard load profile of the country. In case of the Loop Head community, the sectoral load profiles were not easily available. Besides, limited time for IC 2021 challenged the possibility to conduct a survey and synthesize a load profile for each sector in the peninsula. Therefore, synthetic load profile was developed based on literature available for Ireland, as detailed in Chapter 4.2.1 (Ricardo, 2020, pp. 124–125). Similarly, the load profile seen in Figure 6-7 for the farming sector was synthesized based on energy demand profile generated for farms in Ireland (J. Upton et.al, 2013, p. 6). The details on the hourly demand synthesis for farms is explained in Chapter 5.2.2. The hourly demand profile for the commercial sector in the Loop Head was synthetically generated with similar climatic condition as in the Loop Head. This hourly demand profile was synthesized from HOMER, a power system design and University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 68 optimization software. Due to absence of student groups working on the commercial sector in IC 2021, and relatively smaller energy demand of the commercial sector, this approach was expected to approximate the commercial hourly demand profile for the Loop Head. The hourly profile of the commercial sector can be seen in Figure 6-8. The model also provides the flexibility to change these hourly demand profile of each sector. Source: Synthesized based on (Ricardo, 2020, pp. 124–125) Figure 6-6: Hourly Electricity Demand Profile for Residential Sector for a Week 0.000% 0.005% 0.010% 0.015% 0.020% 0.025% 0.030% 1 6 1 1 1 6 2 1 2 6 3 1 3 6 4 1 4 6 5 1 5 6 6 1 6 6 7 1 7 6 8 1 8 6 9 1 9 6 1 0 1 1 0 6 1 1 1 1 1 6 1 2 1 1 2 6 1 3 1 1 3 6 1 4 1 1 4 6 1 5 1 1 5 6 1 6 1 1 6 6 Weekly Electricity Demand Profile for Residential Sector University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 69 Source: Synthesized based on (J. Upton et.al, 2013, p. 6) Figure 6-7: Hourly Electricity demand Profile for Farming for a Week Source: Synthesized from HOMER energy software Figure 6-8: Hourly Electricity Demand Profile for Commercial sector for a Week 0.000% 0.005% 0.010% 0.015% 0.020% 0.025% 0.030% 0.035% 1 6 1 1 1 6 2 1 2 6 3 1 3 6 4 1 4 6 5 1 5 6 6 1 6 6 7 1 7 6 8 1 8 6 9 1 9 6 1 0 1 1 0 6 1 1 1 1 1 6 1 2 1 1 2 6 1 3 1 1 3 6 1 4 1 1 4 6 1 5 1 1 5 6 1 6 1 1 6 6 Weekly Electricity Demand Profile for Farming Sector 0.000% 0.005% 0.010% 0.015% 0.020% 0.025% 0.030% 0.035% 0.040% 0.045% 1 6 1 1 1 6 2 1 2 6 3 1 3 6 4 1 4 6 5 1 5 6 6 1 6 6 7 1 7 6 8 1 8 6 9 1 9 6 1 0 1 1 0 6 1 1 1 1 1 6 1 2 1 1 2 6 1 3 1 1 3 6 1 4 1 1 4 6 1 5 1 1 5 6 1 6 1 1 6 6 Weekly Electricity Demand Profile for Commercial Sector University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 70 6.3.3 Generation Technologies Solar and wind are the globally proven and widely implemented technologies and requires less resources for formulation. Hence, these technologies were considered as the two renewable energy technologies which could be swiftly implemented in the Loop Head peninsula to supply the internal demand of the peninsula. In case of solar technologies, the model provides the possibility to incorporate a variety of solar systems into the Loop Head energy system, ranging from small roof top solar in the individual households and farms to large scale solar plants which could be installed by the community. In case of wind technology, the model provides the option to study the effect of incorporating relatively large-scale community wind farms to the peninsula’s energy system. In order to calculate the energy generation from each of these technologies, certain technical and financial parameters associated with the respective technologies has been assumed. These assumptions will be discussed in detail in the following sub-chapters. Solar Energy In order to calculate the solar energy generation possibilities in Loop Head, reference values for the hourly electricity production which would be made by a 1 MWp solar plant installed in Kilkee was considered. These values were based on MERRA2 dataset at a latitude of 52.620N and 9.720W longitude at a tilt angle of 390 (Pfenninger et. al, 2016). Besides, listed assumption on the technical parameter (Table 6-2) and financial parameter ( Table 6-3) were made for detailed calculation of production possibilities from each type of solar system and for calculating the total cost, which would incur for the respective type of the system. The model also provides the flexibility to change the hourly generation profile and assumptions made on the technical and financial parameters. Table 6-2: Technical Parameters for PV system Technical Parameters Ground Mounted PV System Area requirement 40 m2/kWp Roof -Top Solar System Area Requirement 10 m2/kWp Optimal Tilt Angle 390 University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 71 Module Efficiency 18% Performance Ratio 80% Table 6-3: Financial Parameters for PV system Financial Parameters Type of PV System Investment cost [€/kW] O & M Cost [€/kW/a] Lifetime [Year] Discount Rate (%) PV Community 1000 10 20 3.5 % PV Farm 1200 5 20 3.5 % Rooftop PV in Residential household 1200 5 20 3.5 % Rooftop PV Hotels 1200 5 20 3.5 % Small Battery (per kWh) 500 5 10 3.5 % The details on the cost associated will be discussed in Chapter 6.3.5 Wind Energy In order to calculate the wind energy generation possibilities in Loop Head, reference values for the hourly wind speed data have been utilized at a hub height of 60 m to calculate the hourly electricity production. These hourly wind speed values were obtained from MERRA2 dataset at a latitude of 52.620N and 9.720W longitude (Staffell et.al, 2016). Besides, listed assumption on the technical parameter (Table 6-4) and financial parameter (Table 6-5) were made for detailed calculation of production possibilities from the community wind farms. The model also provides the flexibility to change the hourly generation profile and assumptions made on the technical and financial parameters. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 72 Table 6-4: Technical Parameters for Wind Farm Technical Parameters Remarks Hub Height 60 m Values can be changed in the model by the user based on detailed design Coefficient of Roughness 0.1 m Values can be changed in the model by the user based on updated resources. Wind Park Efficiency 50% Values can be changed in the model based by the user based on detailed design Land Area Requirement 0.24 km2 Values can be changed in the model by the user based on detailed design Table 6-5: Financial Parameters for Wind Farm Financial Parameters Type of PV System Investment cost [€/kW] O & M Cost [€/kW/a] Lifetime [Year] Discount Rate (%) Wind Farm 1500 35 20 3.5 % 6.3.4 CO2 Emission Calculation from Imported Electricity CO2 Emission from Imported Electricity CO2 emission caused by imported electricity in Loop Head can be estimated given there is information available on the share of fuel mix present in the imported electricity. Since, electricity import in Loop Head is made through the national grid in Ireland, share of fuel mix present in the imported electricity is difficult to calculate. Therefore, the share of fuel mix present in the imported electricity was assumed to be equal to the national hourly generation mix. Electricity generating in Ireland is based on coal, natural gas, wind, hydropower, biogas, and biomass. Out of these, coal and natural gas are the major contributors of CO2 emission in the electricity supply sector. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 73 Firstly, to calculate the share of fuel mix in the electricity demand, it was assumed that for each hour of the year the generation from base load Moneypoint Power station (915 MW), coal fired plant remains constant. For the calculation of CO2 emission, the efficiency of this plant was calculated to be 38.05%, based on the energy balance of 2015 (IEA, 2017). The remaining residual demand is then supposed to be supplied by the available hourly wind generation. In the case the demand is not supplied by the coal and wind power generation, it is considered as covered by the natural gas generation. An average efficiency of the natural gas power plant is taken as 50% for calculation of CO2 emission. Based on this assumption, the hourly contribution of each type of generation to the demand was calculated and was applied to calculate the share of fuel mix in electricity import in Loop Head. This share of fuel mix was then utilized to calculate the CO2 emissions considering emissions of 0.3406 tCO2/MWh of fuel from Coal and 0.2047 tCO2/MWh of fuel from Natural Gas (SEAI, 2021b). The result is an hourly time series of CO2-emissions from imported electricity. The benefit from exported electricity is a reduction of gas-based generation and the associated CO2-generation. 6.3.5 Financial Calculation Assumptions The financial calculation involves various associated cost values and calculations. This section details the cost, which have been assumed as inputs to the IC Model 2021 for financial calculations. However, considering the possibilities of these costs to change over the time, the model provides the possibility for the user to change these values. Investment and O&M Cost Technologies The total investment cost accounts for the investment costs incurred from all the generation technologies which are added to the energy system. Investment costs and O&M costs listed in Table 6-4 are considered for the different technologies which can be added to the energy systems of the peninsula. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 74 Fuel Cost Following retail cost of fuels have been considered for the financial calculations Table 6-6 : Fuel Cost considered in IC Model 2021 Fuel Euro/MWh Source Peat 11.3 (EUF, 2020) Oil 74.1 (EUF, 2020) Coal 57.4 (EUF, 2020) LPG 119.3 (EUF, 2020) Electricity (Retail Cost) 170 Interview Other (Wood etc.) 72.1 (EUF, 2020) Electricity Cost Calculation As an approach for simplified calculation, the retail cost of 17 Euro/MWh has been considered as the cost of electricity import in the peninsula. The various utility service providers retail the electricity at various costs. Hence, an average retail price of 0.17 Euro/kWh has been considered. However, this value can be changed in the model by users according to prevailing retail cost of electricity at the time of analysis. Specific Cost of Electricity It is the cost of per unit of electricity generated or supplied by each technology in a year. For simplicity, the cost has not been levelized over the lifetime of the powerplants. The “cost per kWh used” is average cost of electricity for Loop Head after installing renewable energy resources. Grants Following grants available from SEAI have also been considered in the model. Table 6-7: SEAI Solar Grants considered in IC Model 2021 Grant Euro/HH Source SEAI Solar Grant 1-2 kWp 900 (SEAI, 2020d) University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 75 SEAI Solar Grant 3 2100 (SEAI, 2020d) SEAI Solar Grant more than 4 kWp 2400 (SEAI, 2020d) SEAI Grant for Battery 600 (SEAI, 2020d) Average Cost of Electricity The total investment cost for each technology is a product of installed capacity and unit investment cost per unit installed capacity. 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 Annuity Cost is a fixed annual average breakdown cost of total investment cost spread over the project period. 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∗ 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 1 − (1 + 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒)−𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 Operation and Maintenance cost is cost associated with operating and maintaining the power plants. This cost also includes the fuel cost if applicable. The total annual cost for each technology is sum of Annuity and O&M cost. 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑇𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 = 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑇𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 + 𝑂&𝑀 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑇𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 The Specific cost, as mentioned in the model this output panel, is cost incurred to generate unit kWh of energy from specific technology. Average cost of electricity is calculated as, 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ∑ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑇𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑑 Net spending on Energy The net spending on Energy in Loop Head is the total estimated cost of energy resources on energy minus revenue from the export of excess electricity. This estimation is conditional to the choice selection by users depending on the option of the feed-in-tariff, whether there is a feed-in tariff or University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 76 not, and whether or not to change the feed-in tariff from 6 cents/kWh. The current estimated net spending on energy on the loop is around 7 Million Euro, comprising the cost of heating fuel, cost of electricity import, and fuel cost for transportation. 6.4 Integration of Individual Single-User Modelling Section in IC Model 2021 Integration of individual single user modelling section was done in the IC Model 2021 in order to provide single tool which would provide both the functionality for modelling entire community energy system as well as the modelling of individual sectors. Based on the work division on the residential and farming sector, the individual Single-user Modelling section were developed by responsible individual groups. The assumptions, data, and final calculations, and interface developed by the individual groups were added to the IC Model 2021 along with the overall community energy modelling section. Special attention was given to maintain consistency on data and assumptions interrelated with the overall community energy modelling section and individual single user modelling section. However, the relation between the overall community energy modelling section and individual single user modelling section is one directional and there are no possibilities to provide feedback from the overall community energy modelling section to the individual single user modelling section. 6.5 Challenges of Modelling The development of IC Model 2021 provided both enriching and challenging experiences at the same time. The collaboration process takes three forms namely: collaboration with members of the Loop Head community, with other project members working in different sectors, and collaboration within the Model group members. All collaborations and carried out online and it was done with lots of coordination efforts. The project also has a constraint of time (4 weeks), which includes scope definition, project planning, model development, and result presentation. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 77 Another major challenge faced by the model development is data collection. The online nature of the project, combined with the constraints of time and resources led to some limitations in the amount of data that can be collected, which ultimately led to more assumptions in the model. An example of this effect is the carry-over of the same assumption related to hotel room electricity demand from IC 2020. This is as a result of limited time and the number of people working on the project because there is no project team dedicated to the commercial and transport sectors. It is therefore advised that future work should focus on the validation of some of the data and assumptions in the energy model. The presentation and user -interface of the model to members of the community who have limited knowledge of energy and other technical terms related to energy constitutes a major challenge. 6.6 Model Limitations The model shows the status quo of the total energy demand in Loop Head and provides the platform to formulate scenarios related to energy demand, generation, energy efficiency, and finances. The model has been created in a flexible manner such that input parameters and assumptions that can influence output information are modifiable. Notwithstanding, some functional limitations have been identified. These identified limitations are either related to the capability of the model to fulfil its intended purpose or influence the accuracy of the result obtained. These identified limitations are listed: • The model does not consider economies of scale in the calculation of cost for renewable energy technologies. • The transport sector has not been extensively elaborated; therefore, the consumption of diesel and petrol has been lumped as fuel consumption and average fuel cost assumed. • The model does not consider a dual tariff system in the calculation of electricity imports from the grid. • Finally, there is no direct interconnection between individual and community model, as a result of that, model users cannot use a bottom-up approach in scenario formulation. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 78 University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 79 7 Community Engagement As per the objectives, the workshops conducted by IC 2020 provided a platform and a starting point for this year’s study. In line to findings of the IC 2020 workshops, a seven-week course was specially designed for the Loop Head Community by LEAP. The training was led by Mr. John Aston with inputs from the University of Flensburg, Energy Academy, SEAI, Clare Local Development Company, NUI Galway, Limerick Institute of Technology, and the Bryden Centre. The course aimed to support the community to understand the terminologies, technical aspects and underlying economics of renewable energy and community opportunities. The main intention of this course was helping participants to develop their confidence in renewable energy discussion at an individual level and for the community. The intended outcomes of the workshop were: • Understand the key concepts of energy. • Know how mastering your energy supply can lead to improved local livelihoods and community. • Be aware of the energy-cost cycle and possible interventions. • Access and sharing of information and resources to affect useful change. • Develop critical thinking of the individual and community on renewable energy technology. • Enable community members to use the Loop Head Peninsula Energy Balance Model to examine the status quo and alternatives. • Enable community members to develop the home and/or organization’s energy strategy and plan. 7.1 Community Workshops The goal of the online workshop was to train the participants of the Workshop on various aspects of various aspects of community energy relevant to Loop Head. The workshop aimed to close the knowledge gap in terms of community energy and energy terminologies which was identified by IC 2020. This workshop offered a channel to facilitate the activities carried out under the IC 2021. Supporting the IC2021 team to connect their work with the community, allowing the students to University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 80 interact and gather information for the studies being performed. This will also support participants to make informed energy decisions, on energy efficiency and renewable energy technology. The IC2021 took part in four sessions on 22nd, 24th of February and 1st and 3rd of March. The details on the agenda of the workshop are listed in the Annexes. The training included the following topics: • Concepts of energy audits • Energy efficiency in buildings • Introduction to circular economy • Solar on individual farms • Biogas and waste management • Community energy planning and lessons learnt from previous IC projects. • Introduction to the energy model A brief overview of the topics discussed, and the main content presented during the sessions are shown in Table 7-1. Table 7-1: Workshop content Day Topic Discussed Main Contents 22nd February Energy Auditing Discuss where energy is consumed in the residential and farming sector. Discuss the process of energy auditing. How much does the average household consume? Energy Efficiency Describe the current situation in Loop Head. Discuss the measures relating to retrofitting, building envelopes. 24th February Circular Economy Explain the idea of Circular Economy. Examples of a circular economy. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 81 Biogas and Waste management The general concept of Biogas. What kind of waste can be used for biogas generation. How can waste be managed in individual farms? Solar in Individual Farms Introduction to Solar PV system. Present the tool to calculate the optimum size of PV for individual farms 1st March Community Energy in Loop Head Discuss the objectives, progress, challenges of the Loop Head Energy Partnership to orient the Panelists. Community Energy in Applecross Discuss the energy journey of the Applecross community. Community Energy in Shetland Discuss the energy journey of the Unst community in Shetland. 3rd March Introduction to Loop Head Energy Model Introduction to Loop Head Energy Model. Training participants to develop scenarios. The workshops were hosted by Mr. John Aston on the Zoom platform. Any interested individual from the community were able to join the meeting via a link or the meeting id number. The workshops session and discussion were jointly moderated by Rijan Shrestha and Sheikh Ahmed Tijan Bah. 7.2 Workshop Sessions and Discussion Session 1 Date: Monday, 22nd February 2021 University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 82 This was the first workshop conducted by the IC 2021. The workshop was done in presentation plenary discussion format. The presentation and discussion of the workshop were focused on the topic of Energy audit and Energy efficiency. The topic of energy audit was presented by Nicolas Oviedo and Carlos Epia. The topic of Energy efficiency was presented by Nazym Temirgaliyeva and Neda Ebadi. The session was held on the Zoom meeting platform and attended by 23 participants from the Loop Head community. Energy Audit: The main objective of the presentation on Energy Audit was to orient the participants on the idea of the energy audit. The focus of the presentation was to: • Introduce the concept of Energy Audit. • Explain the type of energy audits and how energy audit is performed. • Pre-site visit: Energy consumption and benchmarking. • Present some energy conservation measures for the residential sector. • Energy conservation recommendations for the dairy sector An introduction to Energy Audit was provided by Nicolas Oviedo. Different stages of an energy audit, levels of an energy audit, and who can conduct an energy audit was explained. The time required to consume 1 kWh for general household appliances, electric shower, cooker, kettle etc. was shared along with the residential profile. This was done to visualize the daily load variations based on various residential activities. Outputs of energy audits, such as analysis and evaluation on current energy use and a list of recommendations to improve energy efficiency were shared. National Agricultural Energy Optimization Tool (https://messo.shinyapps.io/AEOP_/ ) was shared with the participants. This tool can be used to simulate an optimize system for the dairy sector. A sample optimization for a rooftop PV system for a dairy farm, based on the herd size, milking time, number of milking units, investment cost for solar PV, feed-in tariffs etc. was conducted. This generated a result with monetary analysis, electricity analysis and environmental analysis which was shared with the participants. https://messo.shinyapps.io/AEOP_/ University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 83 During the presentation, a poll was conducted among the participants asking their monthly electricity consumption. The results of the polling showed an average consumption of 300-400 kWh (29%) represents the average household electricity consumption in Ireland, which is approximately 350 kWh per month per household (Selectra, 2021). Energy Efficiency in the Residential sector: The objective of the presentation was to orient the participants on the topic of energy efficiency in the residential sector. The content of the presentation was: • Introduction to the concept of energy efficiency and its importance • Energy consumption by sector in Loop Head • Introduction to BER ratings and steps for improvement • Thermal performances of houses • The heating requirement of existing buildings • Factors not captured by BER rate During the presentation, some of the key points which were discussed were how energy efficiency can improve the building energy requirement and enhance comfort levels. The participants were informed of the Building Energy Rating (BER) standards, and the requirements to achieve different BER rating. They were informed about possible improvement on building envelope, heating improvements, renewable technologies which could improve building energy efficiency performance thus leading to higher BER ratings. Participants were also informed about the retrofitting analysis, which talks about the effect of various improvement on BER ratings. Also, an example of how updating building fabric can improve building energy performance was illustrated. Lastly, the limitations of BER ratings were also explained, which are mostly related to human behavioural aspects of the occupants. Key Takeaways The objective of the sessions on the energy audit and energy efficiency in the residential sector was to capacitate them to relate these topics to their household. Information on their energy University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 84 consumption and experiences with energy auditing was shared by participants. Household energy efficiency status, retrofitting measures undertaken in their households, and current BER ratings were also shared. The details on the key discussion are also mentioned below for further insight into the main discussions. • It was observed that participants’ knowledge is heterogeneous in the sense that some have been exposed to the energy sector and knowledge and many are less exposed, for example, two of the participants shared their experience with the installation of a solar rooftop PV system. The size of PV system was 4.76 kWp and 3.06 kWp. The information on the energy purchased, PV generation, and export to the grid was shared. Those participants were encouraged with the performance of the PV system and recommended it to others. • Participants were also aware of the use of energy-efficient appliances, replacing conventional lighting with energy-efficient LED lights, use of appliances based on the energy efficiency ratings and also turning off appliances when not in use to reduce energy consumption. • A poll was conducted after the presentation sessions, which collected the energy efficiency situation in the 20 participants households. The finding of the poll showed that the majority (75%) of the participants want to improve energy efficiency to reduce their energy bill followed by improving the comfort levels in their household (55%). Only 7 participants had done BER rating of their houses with 5 having A-B and 2 with C-D rating. The majority of participants have retrofitted or are willing to retrofit their Roof, which is followed by windows and doors and improvement in walls. • A participant expressed that there is a strong will to generate energy locally in the Community as a community energy project. • It was suggested that a future pathway for the Loop Head community could be to retrofit few households in partnership with SEAI. Which could encourage others who are lagging to follow and implement energy efficiency measures. Session 2 Date: Wednesday, 24th February 2021 University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 85 The session started with a recap on the topics discussed in the 1st workshop on 22nd February. The second workshop was also conducted in the presentation plenary discussion format. The presentation and discussion for the workshop were focused on the topic of Circular Economy, Anaerobic Digestion and Solar Photovoltaic technology. The first topic on Circular Economy and Anaerobic digestion were jointly presented by Aadit Malla and Mary Obando. The second topic was presented by Carlos Epia and Tatiana Carvalho. The Session was attended by 23 participants from the Loop Head Community. Circular Economy, Anaerobic Digestion The objective of the presentation on Circular Economy and Anaerobic Digestion was to introduce the participants to the underlying concept of Circular Economy, its principles and some technical background on Anaerobic Digestion. The main idea behind the presentation was to sensitize participants on the topic and create a dialogue on how it can be applied in Loop Head Community. The details on the content presented are listed below: • Introduction to Circular Economy and its principles • Importance of circular economy • Best practices on Global Circular Economy • Circular Economy in Dairy Farms • Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion The definition of Circular economy was presented to the participant. The difference between the Linear Economy (take-make-dispose) and Circular economy was elaborated. Principles of a circular economy; design out of waste, build resilience through diversity, energy from renewable resources, think in systems, and waste is the food of another process/product was discussed. A video on the circular economy: definition & Examples (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X6HDcubgxRk) was shared with the participants to better understanding the concept discussed. Some success stories on the implementation of the circular economy were shared, which includes an example on circular ocean project, VenloCity C2C https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X6HDcubgxRk University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 86 Design, Good Food Brussels presented at joint workshop “Pathways to a circular economy in cities and regions” (ESPON, 2016). The dairy sector plays an important part in the economy of the Loop Head community. Understanding this importance, the concept of circulatory in Dairy Farms in Loop Head was covered in the presentation. The advantage such as improved resource security decreased import dependency, reduced environmental impact, economic benefits and social benefits which can be achieved with the application of circular economy in dairy farms was presented. This was done to introduce circularity to different processes and activities, feed to fertilizer, in the dairy sector. The concepts of extensive grazing, intensive-high tech and optimized grazing were elaborated. The presenter suggested the optimized grazing approach as a suitable scenario for the dairy sector as it has lower upfront costs and other improvements can be made gradually. Biogas The sources which can be used for biogas production was presented. The participants were presented with the working principle of the Anaerobic digester process, and various application of biogas. The idea of Anaerobic digester application in Farms was presented. Key Takeaway The objective of the sessions on the Circular economy was to introduce the concept and sensitize farmers to apply this to energy generation through biogas and at the same time produce fertilizer required for farms. During the presentation and discussions, participants were also informed about different wastes which could be used for biogas production. In the case of solar in individual farms participants were informed about different solar technologies. Input from the participants was collected to design an optimum size of a PV system, during the process participants were informed about the important parameters for designing a solar rooftop system. • The participants were in general interested in using an anaerobic digestor at an individual level. They were curious about the use of circular economy at a farm level, type of biomass that could be used for biogas production. Some of the participants are already conducting some market University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 87 research on farm level biogas plants. The biomass model being developed can be a useful tool for the participants to estimate the biogas yield based on the available biomass feed. • As learned from the session on 22nd February, participants are interested in the solar PV system. This session briefly presented the different PV module technology and collected important feedback from the community on the PV model being designed. Rooftop PV systems The second presentation was on the topic of Rooftop PV systems. This presentation was intended to provide the participants with basic knowledge on the principle of solar energy, its functionality, costs and introduce participants to the IC 2021 Solar PV optimization model. The details on the content presented are listed below: • Source of solar energy • Components of rooftop PV systems • Cost range of Solar PV • Benefits of installing a rooftop solar system. • Identifying Optimum size of a solar rooftop PV system. The presentation started with the fundamental of solar energy. The basic working principle of the solar photovoltaic system was presented, and different types of solar panels were introduced. A schematic view of a basic rooftop solar PV system and the range of solar PV systems were shared. Different decision criteria for PV system optimization mentioned below were discussed: ▪ Cost of the PV system ▪ Future bill costs ▪ Internal rate of return (IRR) ▪ Total NPV of the investment, ▪ The carbon footprint of household electricity University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 88 The Level of Smart export guarantee per year in the high and low scenario of the planned Feed-In tariff policy was shared with participants. The model for optimization of PV system for farms and individual household in Loop Head which was under development was introduced. Participants were also asked about their expectation from the Model. Session 3 Date: Monday, 1st March 2021 This was the third session and the first in the second week. The session was focused on community energy planning, drawing lessons from the experiences of communities in Scotland; Shetland and Applecross, hosts of International Class in 2019 and 2014, respectively. John Aston discussed the current situation in Loop Head, indicating that there are immense energy resources, a strong energy demand and a lot of money is spent to import energy to the Loop. John also highlighted that the Loop Head is starting fresh and has a lot to be done and therefore, welcome all ideas and experiences. He went on further to introduce the participants from the community to the invited panellists. Statement by Ms Alison Macleod on Community Energy in Applecross Ms. Alison Macleod spoke about Applecross but first introduced herself, detailing her roles within the Applecross community company. She discussed the community’s partnership with Community Energy Scotland, who provided financial and technical support to the community. Ms. Macleod spoke about the challenges with mobilizing interest, land ownership, and the initial plan for income generation as part of a government scheme to promote renewable energy generation and the lead up to the decision to use the energy locally, instead. Ms. Macleod also spoke extensively about financing and the challenges they faced with that before detailing how this was addressed by offering shares to community members which are to be bought back within 20years when the feed in tariffs would expire. She also discussed some of the plans for the community to develop energy- related projects such as development of energy efficient affordable housing in partnership with the housing association. There are also plans for electric vehicle charging system with a view to have a shared electric vehicle for the community. One of the plans is to develop community transport, University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 89 currently a number of locals have electric bikes and there are electric trailers to deliver local food supplies. She concluded on the ongoing development of wood biomass (timber) to be exported from a community owned woodland area. Presentation by Ms. Elizabeth Johnson MBE and Ross Gazey Ms. Elizabeth Johnson and Mr. Ross Gazey made a presentation on Successful Community Project Examples looking at the sustainable energy journey of Shetland. Ms. Johnson introduced the Pure Energy Centre and the work of the organization, citing that the success of the Pure Energy Centre is an example of how a small community initiative can leap to become a global phenomenon. Ms. Johnson also explained the journey from working on electrolysis to taking control of all the components of the hydrogen production system and refilling station. The Pure Project is the first community renewable hydrogen project in the world which was first established for wind to heat. The community also got the first hydrogen system in a container, which was trademarked HyPod which led to some legal complications with Apple for sounding like iPod. The community would win the legal battle showing what a community can do. The success of the hydrogen project led to the establishment of the Pure Energy Centre. And through the Pure Project, the Pure Energy Centre was involved in tens of millions of pounds which has benefitted the Shetland community greatly. Mr. Ross Gazey also discussed the circular economic model in the Outer Hebrides which was subject of the IC2019. The project includes the use of an anaerobic digestor combined with wind to produce hydrogen. The hydrogen is used to power refuse trucks. There is also a fuel cell which powers the salmon hatchery. The salmon hatchery uses oxygen from the hydrogen electrolyser and waste from the hatchery is used in the anaerobic digestor, making the system a completely circular economy. The Yorkshire Forward project was also described. The project provided energy for the EETC building, a technology centre which serves as an innovation incubator. The project included a wind turbine which is used to power a 30kW Electrolyser, combined with storage and fuel cell to power the building. This is evidence that the application of renewable hydrogen can be in both urban and rural settings. The presentation concluded with an overview of the community benefits listed below: • Promote H2 and potential for further projects University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 90 • Create new business ventures in a community • Inward migration • Potential for new exciting jobs • Support the local community by re-investing in it • Green technology brings technology tourism • Raise the profile of your area • New ventures attract other businesses • Do not be afraid to aim high • Always ensure community benefits are high and any project contains budgets for local management • Upskilling of workforce –stop the brain drain • Energy/fuel security • Income generation Takeaways To deduce some takeaways from the session based on the objective to familiarize the community on the planning process according to the experiences in Shetland and Applecross, a question was asked at the beginning of the session and the following were the responses elicited at the end. Question: From the presentations and discussions about the community energy projects in Scotland, what could be applicable to Loop Head? Responses: • To work with what you have and from there, comes ideas. • To choose a project that uses the resources we have • Get an overview of the available resources and used that to decide which projects to start with • Think BIG if you can! University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 91 • Check under every rock and trace every loose thread to find what has worked elsewhere and use that momentum to push through the education. Session 4 Date: Wednesday, 3rd March 2021 The final session for IC 2021 in the LEAP Energy Academy workshop looked at the model developed – The Loop Head Energy Model. Details of the model are discussed in Chapter Error! R eference source not found.. The objective of the session was to familiarize the participants with the model, starting with presentations detailing the components, dashboard, input and output parameters of IC Model 2021, followed by a breakout session allowing the participants to work with the model to develop a scenario. The presentations were made by Aastha Bhattarai, Anish Chandra Pyakurel and Michael Adepoju, who headed the development of the model. Aastha defined Energy Modelling before going into details of the Loop Head Energy Model. She discussed the objectives and the sections of the model. Anish illustrated the working of the Individual section of the model, i.e., the BER estimator and Solar Calculator, which are designed following the methodology explained in Chapter 4.1.4 and Chapter 5.2.2 respectively. The Solar calculator is used to determine an appropriate size of PV System for a household or farm while the BER estimator helps the user identify the retrofitting work needs to be done to improve the BER rating of the household and the potential associated costs. Michael on the other hand explained the community model by first describing the user interface. He informed the participants of the contents of the various worksheets, tabs, charts, and work cells. Michael also demonstrated the working of the model by developing a scenario with an objective of reducing annual net energy spending in the Loop by 2 million Euros. Breakout Sessions In the first breakout session, the discussion began with identifying the objective, which as mentioned in the Chapter 1 is to conserve energy and reduce spending on energy. A scenario was developed to this effect, focusing on generating energy locally with rooftop solar for households and farms, and community solar and wind farm. In addition, energy efficiency measures for up to University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 92 25% of households was considered in the scenario. The output of the simulation indicated that, an investment of over 5 million and 2 million Euros is required for the renewable systems and retrofitting, respectively. This will bring a saving of about 2 million to the Loop from the 6.9 million spent annually. The participants however noted that the retrofitting requirement for some of the households may not be achievable. To make this point, the BER estimator was used to estimate the cost of retrofitting for the house of one of the participants which was built pre-1919 and was a detached stone wall house. The model results showed that more than 30,000 Euros will be needed to retrofit the house. From the discussion, it was highlighted that this is the situation for many households in the Loop and as such emphasis should be put on installing PV systems for households to generate their own electricity and to develop community energy schemes to reduce the net spending on energy for the community as a whole. The second breakout session was presented by Michael Adepoju, this session started with a reiteration of various components on the Input-Output tab of the energy model. During the session, multiple cases were tested based on participants request. In the beginning, a possible case of installing a 10 MW wind power plant was tested. With this capacity of a wind turbine installed, the model generated annual total electricity of 30,805 MWh. Out of this generation, 18,890MWh was exported to the grid. A possible scenario with heat pump in 20% of residential houses was tested, the output indicated that with the installation of heat pumps, 0.5 Million Euros can be saved from annual net spending on energy, which is 6.9 million Euros. Another scenario with 25% (312) of occupied houses installing 3 kWp solar rooftop system was simulated, the results were 901 MWh of electricity generation per annum and the investment requirement was estimated at 1.1 Million Euros. The model also showed that with SEAI grants this investment requirement could be reduced to 468 thousand Euros. A case of installing a 15 MW wind power plant was tested, the output showed that with a feed-in tariff of 6 Euro cents/kWh the annual revenue from electricity export would be 2.06 million euros. Participants were also guided to update the calculation parameters, to update the model to adjust future price changes and to adjust capacities of RE technologies. A case with a 20% increase in the number of farms with less than 100 Cows were simulated, which led to increase in electricity demand by around 200 MWh per annum. Lastly, a University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 93 20% increase in an electric car was simulated, which showed a possibility to reduce fuel cost by 500 thousand Euros. Takeaways • The community members present were keen on reducing their own energy consumption and carbon footprints. The main motivation being to reduce their spending on energy. • In order to get more members of the community on-board, individual members of the community will need to be shown how much impact their individual efforts have on the overall energy balance of the community, the associated costs, and benefits. • Retrofitting households is important to reduce energy consumption, however, given the associated costs, pursuing rooftop PV installations seems to be of highest priority to the community members present according to a poll conduction during the discussion. The result of the poll is found in the Appendix H.4124. It is worth noting however, that installing PV systems without improving the household energy efficiency may not reap the desired results. • The model has great potential; despite the limitations, the community members present are keen on working with it. About two thirds of the community members present expressed a desire to master the use of the Loop Head Peninsula Energy Model with at least an in-depth understanding. • The community members present expressed great satisfaction and appreciation to the students for the workshops. The feedback given was positive and indicated that the participants have understood the theories, concepts, technologies, and terminologies discussed during the course of the workshops. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 94 8 Conclusion Under the prevailing conditions set forth because of the COVID-19 pandemic, IC 2021 had to be conducted in an unprecedented manner. Without jeopardising the aim of international class, IC 2021 was designed to focus on objectives achievable within the context of the limitation of activities to virtual interactions, literature-based desk research, online workshops, and computer simulations. The objectives, nature, and scope of IC 2021 is certainly indicative of the situation, albeit the results generated are unalloyed by the circumstances. Over the course of the sessions hosted by international class 2021 in the LEAP Energy Academy, the community has shown great interest in the energy topics discussed and have always contributed significantly to the discussions with educated questions and comments. The presentations were well received and the feedback from the community indicate that the explanations were clear and well understood. While the objective of the sessions was to familiarize the participants with some of the topics, concepts, and terminologies relevant to community energy, the participants have expressed a willingness to continue the discussions with other community members out of the sessions. This indicates that they are comfortable with the concepts and terminologies introduced during the workshops and the objectives for international class 2021 has being achieved to great extent. IC 2021 has found that, to record savings in the heating demand for the residential sector, improvements in building envelope material and level of insulation is a necessity for households. Replacing oil boilers with more efficient clean heating technologies can further reduce household expenditures on fuel and reduce carbon footprint. While many might be dissuaded by the cost of implementing energy efficiency measures, taking up such endeavours like retrofitting and installing heat pumps (air to water) could yield immense economic benefit for the community. As noted in the first session of the workshop, this may start with developing local skills and raising awareness of the grants and incentives available. In one of the discussions, it was also pointed out that some trainings are available through the SEAI for free. However, there must be a market built University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 95 in the community for such skills to motivate a few people to take up such trainings. Having local personnel to carry out these works will greatly reduce cost and encourage more up take. In addition to retrofitting and other energy efficiency measures, the Loop Head community could push for a community energy scheme. The report of IC 2020 has detailed extensively the potential for wind and solar in the Loop Head peninsula. Scenarios developed during the breakout session in the final workshop showed the Loop can drastically reduce the annual net spending on energy by implementing a community energy scheme using solar and/or wind. The community members will be motivated in this regard by the examples of the communities in Shetland and Applecross, which were presented as part of the workshop. For the farmers in the Loop Head, IC 2021 recommends adopting circular economic practices to curb dependence on fossil fuels, improve management of cattle manure and improve overall energy efficiency in the farms. Given the interest in rooftop PV within the community members present during the workshops and those interviewed during IC 2020, installing rooftop PV in farms was analysed. The results indicate that farmers will recover their investment in rooftop PV within 9 years on average. The analysis of rooftop PV potential in Loop Head also lead to the development of a solar calculator which can be used both for farms and residences. It is expected that the solar calculator in the model will be of benefit in estimating solar PV system sizes and associated costs and benefits for the community. Installing PV systems in households and farms might perhaps be the most enticing for the community members since it is relatively feasible, and the available grants make it economical. The prospect for feed-in tariffs also adds a financial incentive. In addition to the solar calculator, the model also includes a BER estimator which can be used to estimate the cost of retrofitting a household based on the year of construction, building type and desired BER rating. The solar calculator and BER estimator form the individual section of the model. The community section on the other hand allows users to simulate a scenario which could include inter alia, a community-owned energy scheme with wind or solar, adoption of electric vehicles, installation of rooftop solar, and household retrofits. In the penultimate workshop, the model was introduced to the community members present, who expressed enthusiasm towards the University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 96 model and intend to work with it both for their individual enterprises and for the community partnership. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 97 REFERENCES Blades, L., Morgan, K., Douglas, R., Glover, S., Rosa, M. de, Cromie, T. and Smyth, B. (2017) ‘Circular Biogas-Based Economy in a Rural Agricultural Setting’, Energy Procedia, vol. 123, pp. 89–96. Bomberg, E. and McEwen, N. (2012) ‘Mobilizing Community Energy’, Energy Policy, vol. 51, pp. 435–444 [Online]. Available at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2012.08.045 (Accessed 17 February 2021). Buckley, C. (2020) A Report on Bovine Manure Managemnt, Application and Storage Practices in Ireland. 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IRENA (2019) Electricity storage and renewables: Costs and markets to 2030. Abu Dhabi. International Renewable Energy Agency., International Renewable Energy Agency. Irish bioenerby association (2019) Biogas Support Scheme: Mobilising an Irish Biogas Industry with Policy and Action. Irish Bioenergy Association and Composting and Anaerobic Digestion of Ireland (2019) ‘Mobilising an Irish and Biogas Industry with Policy and action’ [Online]. Available at http:// www.cre.ie/web/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/IrBEA-Cre-Biogas-Policy-Paper-Final_1.pdf (Accessed 3 March 2021). Irish Solar Association (2021) Consultation Response on a micro-generation support scheme in Ireland 2021. J. Upton et.al (2013) ‘Energy demand on dairy farms in Ireland’. Jia Lin (2011) ‘Effects of mixture ratio on anaerobic co-digestion with fruit and vegetable waste and food waste of China’. John Upton, Michael Murphy, Padraig French and Pat Dillon. (2010) Dairy Farm Energy Consumption. Korhonen, J., Nuur, C., Feldmann, A. and Birkie, S. E. (2018) ‘Circular economy as an essentially contested concept’, Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 175, pp. 544–552. Liam Bastick (2018) How to craft the best Excel spreadsheet models: Technology and analytics. Lowitzsch, J. (2018) Energy transition: Financing consumer co-ownership in renewables / Jens Lowitzsch, Basingstoke, Hampshire, Palgrave Macmillan. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 100 Lukehurst, C. and Bywater, A. (2015) ‘Exploring the viability of small scale anaerobic digesters in livestock farming’ [Online]. Available at https://www.ieabioenergy.com/wp-content/uploads/ 2015/12/Small_Scale_RZ_web2.pdf (Accessed 28 January 2021). Nakata, T. (2004) ‘Energy-economic models and the environment’, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 30, pp. 417–475. Observatory of Economic Complexity (2021) Observatory of Economic Complexity [Online]. 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SEAI (2016a) Energy Data Portal: Final Consumption [Online], SEAI. Available at https:// www.seai.ie/data-and-insights/seai-statistics/energy-data/ (Accessed 4 March 2021). SEAI (2016b) Energy-Related Emissions in Ireland: CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion, SEAI [Online]. Available at https://www.seai.ie/publications/Energy-Related-Emissions-in- Ireland-2016-report.pdf (Accessed 10,02,2021). SEAI (2018a) Energy in Residential Sector: 2018 Report, SEAI [Online]. Available at https:// www.seai.ie/publications/Energy-in-the-Residential-Sector-2018-Final.pdf. SEAI (2018b) Heat Demand Atlas: Stats by County [Online], Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland. Available at https://gis.seai.ie/heatdemand/ (Accessed 18 February 2021). SEAI (2018c) Heat Demand Maps [Online], Ireland, SEAI. Available at https://gis.seai.ie/ heatdemand/ (Accessed 5,02,2021). SEAI (2018d) Sustainable Energy Communities Handbook, Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland [Online]. Available at https://www.seai.ie/publications/ Sustainable%20Energy%20Communities%20Handbook.pdf (Accessed 28 February 2021). SEAI (2019) Better Energy Homes Programme: Application Guide version 13 [Online], Ireland, SEAI. Available at https://www.seai.ie/publications/Homeowner-Application-Guide.pdf (Accessed 20 February 2021). University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 101 SEAI (2020a) Anaerobic Digestion for On-farm Uses-Operations and Maintenence Guide. SEAI (2020b) Heat Pump Systems [Online], Ireland, SEAI. Available at https://www.seai.ie/ grants/home-energy-grants/heat-pump-systems/ (Accessed 10,02,2021). SEAI (2020c) Residential [Online], Ireland, SEAI. Available at https://www.seai.ie/data-and- insights/seai-statistics/key-statistics/residential/. SEAI (2020d) Solar Electricity Grant [Online], SEAI. Available at https://www.seai.ie/grants/ home-energy-grants/solar-electricity-grant/. SEAI (2021a) Domestic Fuels Comparison of Energy Costs [Online], Ireland, SEAI. Available at https://www.seai.ie/publications/Domestic-Fuel-Cost-Comparison.pdf (Accessed 15,02,2021). SEAI (2021b) Emission factors [Online]. Available at https://www.seai.ie/data-and-insights/seai- statistics/conversion-factors/ (Accessed 3 March 2021). SEAI (2021c) Search Our Sustainable Energy Communities Network | SEAI [Online]. Available at https://www.seai.ie/community-energy/sustainable-energy-communities/sec-map/index.xml? z=7&lat=54.1680083330976&lng=-7.833251953125 (Accessed 26 February 2021). Sean O’Connor, Ehiaze Ehimen, Suresh C. Pillai, Gary Lyons and John Bartlett (2020) ‘Economic and Environmental Analysis of Small-scale Anaerobic Digestion Plants of Irish Dairy Farms’. Selectra (2021) What are average gas & electricity bills in Ireland? [Online], Selectra. Available at https://selectra.ie/energy/guides/billing/average-gas-electricity-bill (Accessed 1 March 2021). Seyfang, G., Park, J. J. and Smith, A. (2013) ‘A thousand flowers blooming? An examination of community energy in the UK’, Energy Policy, vol. 61, pp. 977–989 [Online]. Available at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.06.030 (Accessed 27 February 2021). Solarvest (2021) Types of Solar Power Systems [Online]. Available at https://solarvest.my/2018/ 08/15/types-solar-power-systems/. St. Denis, G. and Parker, P. (2009) ‘Community energy planning in Canada: The role of renewable energy’, vol. 13, no. 8, pp. 2088–2095 [Online]. Available at https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.rser.2008.09.030 (Accessed 27 February 2021). Staffell et.al (2016) ‘Using Bias-Corrected Reanalysis to Simulate Current and Future Wind Power Output’, Energy, vol. 114, pp. 1224–1239 [Online]. DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2016.08.068 (Accessed February 2021). Statista (2021a) Ireland - Inflation rate 2025 | Statista [Online]. Available at https:// www.statista.com/statistics/375229/inflation-rate-in-ireland/ (Accessed 3 February 2021). Statista (2021b) Ireland: household electricity prices 2010-2020 | Statista [Online]. Available at https://www.statista.com/statistics/418082/electricity-prices-for-households-in-ireland/ (Accessed 3 February 2021). University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 102 Students EUF (2020) A LEAP TOWARDS ENERGY SUSTAINABILITY FOR LOOP HEAD COMMUNITIES - FINAL REPORT INTERNATIONAL CLASS 2020 [Online]. Sustainability Guide (2018) Circular Economy - Sustainability Guide [Online]. Available at https://sustainabilityguide.eu/sustainability/circular-economy/ (Accessed 18 January 2021). TABULA (2014) A detailed study on the energy performance of typical Irish dwelling [Online], Ireland. Available at https://webtool.building-typology.eu/#bd (Accessed 05,02,2021). Teagasc (2018) ‘Solar PV’, 08/2018. TendersOnTime (2021) Power Grid Connected Roof top Solar PV Systems for Kakinada Smart City [Online]. Available at https://www.tendersontime.com/blogdetails/power-grid-connected- roof-top-solar-pv-systems-kakinada-smart-city-2344/. The Minnesota Project (2014) The Economics of Anaerobic Digestors on a Farm [Online]. Thumann, A., Niehus, T. and Younger, W. J. (2013) Handbook of energy audits, 9th edn, Lilburn GA, Boca Raton FL, Fairmont Press; Distributed by Taylor & Francis. U.S Energy Information Administration (2020) Biogas-Renewable natural gas - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) [Online]. Available at https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/ biomass/landfill-gas-and-biogas.php (Accessed 18 January 2021). World Biogas Association (2019) Global Potential of Biogas. XD Consulting (2020) ‘Feasibility Study on Anaerobic Digestion for the Dingle Peninsula’. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 103 APPENDIX A. Residential Demand A.1. The results of poll conducted at the 1st Workshop to Community in 8th of February 2021. Question: What type of energy interventions are you considering? The graph below summarized the number of respondents and the proposed options. A.2. The results of poll conducted at the Workshop to Community in 22 February 2021. Question: Why is improving energy efficiency is important for you? 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Solar panels/ PV (alone and with combination) Energy efficiency Heat pumps Solar panels/ PV+ heat pumps Solar panels/PV+heat pumps + Energy efficiency Solar panels/PV+ Energy efficiency University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 104 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Reducing my energy bill comfort level imrovement BER imrovement CO2 emission reduction Contributing sutainability in the community University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 105 B. Theory on Circular Economy A clear understanding of circular economy is important before diving into the implementation of the concept. This section describes the concepts and theory behind circular economy and its benefits to the local economy. Also, an in-depth technical background description on the proposed technologies for this study have been described in detail with an aim that the reader will be able to visualize the implementation of these technologies in farms in Loop Head to attain circularity. The definition of circular economy considers three dimensions of: economic, environmental, and social aspects. “CE is a sustainable development initiative with the objective of reducing the societal production-consumption systems' linear material and energy throughput flows by applying material cycles, renewable and cascade-type energy flows to the linear system. CE promotes high value material cycles alongside more traditional recycling and develops systems approaches to the cooperation of producers, consumers, and other societal actors in sustainable development work” (Korhonen et al., 2018). The “linear model” is a model that could be also called “take-make-dispose”. In this model the premise is simple: companies extract raw materials, use energy and create a product, and sell the product to an end consumer. This consumer is the one who discards the product when it no longer works or no longer serves the user’s purpose (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2013). The following figures shows a comparison between the two models, the linear model can be observed in the left side of the image where the flow is take-make-dump, and the energy is taken from finite resources. On the right side there is a representation of the circular model, which looks at reducing, repairing, and recycling while consuming renewable energy resources. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 106 Source: (Sustainability Guide, 2018) Figure: Linear and Circular Economy Models Need for a switch to Circularity A linear economy model incurs unnecessary resource losses in several ways, some of them are mentioned below (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2013): • Waste in the production chain: between mining and final manufacturing significant volume of materials are commonly lost in the chain to produce different goods. • End-of-life waste: For most materials, the conventional recovery rates after the end of their first functional life is quite low compared with primary manufacturing rates. • Energy use: In the linear model, when a product is disposed in a landfill this means that all its residual energy is lost. Circular economy a model which refers to an industrial economy that is by intention; aims to use renewable energy, minimizes, tracks, and eliminates the use of toxic chemicals; and eradicates waste through careful design. According to the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, circular economy is based on a few simple principles (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2013): University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 107 • Design out of waste: waste is not present when the biological and technical components (or nutrients) of a product are designed by intention to fit within a biological or technical materials cycle, designed for disassembly and refurbishment. The biological nutrients can be simply composted since they are non-toxic. • Build resilience through diversity • Rely on energy from renewable • Think in systems: In circular economy it is important to have the ability to understand how parts influence one another within a whole, and the relationship of the whole to the parts. • Waste is food: waste produced in one step of the process should be considered as food for another step of the process. A shift from linear economic model to a circular model significantly reduces negative environmental impact. The re-use and recycling of raw materials could show enormous potential in all global economic sector making efficient use of resources and avoiding waste. Bioeconomy is acknowledged as to be crucial for achieving circular economy by The Circular Economy Action Plan (European Bioeconomy, 2019). The European Bioeconomy Alliance (EUBA) mention a coherent, supportive framework and policy as primary ingredient to ensure sustainable bio-economy and also emphasize on their ambitions to synergize the idea with circular economy (European Bioeconomy, 2019). • Improved resource security: using better what is already used and using what is not yet used provide a form of resource security in terms of self-sufficiency. In the policy there is not mention a current resource insecurity but to have the availability of the resources would allow the community to be more independent, • Decreased import dependency: With the escalation in the use of the locally available products, the dependency on the imports can be observed to reduce. In 2019 Ireland imported 87.7 billion of euros in different products (Observatory of Economic Complexity, 2021). University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 108 • Reduced environmental impact: A reduction of emissions due to less transportation requirements due to locally available resources and also less dependency on burning fossils fuels. • Economic Benefits: As a result of new products from locally available resource and the markets for the same, economic benefits from these new markets can have significant impact on the local economy. Also, the reduced dependency on imported fossil fuels can result in substantial import savings. • Social Benefits: A change in consumer consumption pattern along with creation of new job opportunities is expected to have significant positive impact on the society in the long run (ESPON and INTERACT, 2016). As mentioned before, the following sections will cover technical background on the aspects considered in this study as a point of departure for the transition of the farming sector in Loop Head towards a circular economy. C. Energy Audit Energy audits are used to improve the efficiency of energy-consuming processes, to obtain an economic benefit because of a decrease in energy consumption. Nowadays, when climate change is a social concern and high cost of electricity an issue efficiecnt use of energy becomes important thus making “energy audit” absolutely necessary. In 1980 the first edition of Handbook of Energy Audits (Thumann et al., 2013) which studied the term “energy audit” in detail was published and with its following editions has served as a reference to many energy auditors until the present day. The writers state that an energy audit can be simply defined as a process of determining the types and costs of energy use in the building, evaluating where a building or plant uses energy, and identifying opportunities to reduce consumption (Thumann et al., 2013). There is a wide range of possibilities in terms of energy audits and it depends on the purpose for which it is done. Simplified energy audits can be performed economically to find energy savings in a house and detailed energy audits can be necessary for complex processes. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 109 C.1. Levels of energy audit Taking into consideration the scope of the project and level of effort necessary to meet expectations, (Thumann et al., 2013) describes four basic types or levels of energy audit. • Type 0: This audit includes performing a detailed preliminary analysis of energy use and costs, and determining benchmark indices based on utility bills. This is very cost effective. • Type I: It is called walk-though audit, and is a tour of the facility to visually inspect each of the energy using systems. It will typically include an evaluation of energy consumption data to analyze energy use quantities and patterns as well as provide comparisons to industry averages or benchmarks for similar facilities. It can yield a preliminary estimate of saving potential and provide a list of low-cost savings opportunities through improvements in operational and maintenance practices. It is the least costly audit and it is an opportunity to collect information for more detailed audit later on if the preliminary savings potential appears to warrant an expanded scope of auditing activity. • Type II: It is the standard audit and it goes on to quantify energy uses and losses through a more detailed review and analysis of equipment, systems, and operational characteristics. This analysis may also include some on-site measurement and testing to quantify energy use and efficiency of various systems. Standard energy engineering calculations are used to analyze efficiency and cost savings based on improvements and changes to each system. It also includes economic analysis. • Type III: Performed through use of computer simulation software to a more detail energy use by function and a more comprehensive evaluation of energy use patterns. The auditor will develop a computer simulation of building systems that will account for weather and other variables and predict year-round energy use. Because of the time involved in collecting detailed equipment information, operational data, and setting up an accurate computer model, this is the most expensive level of energy audit but may be warranted if the facility or systems are more complex in nature. (Thumann et al., 2013, pp. 1–2) University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 110 C.2. Process to conduct an energy audit (Thumann et al., 2013) describes a long sequence of tasks to perform an energy audit. In case of farms some of them may not be relevant, and other new tasks may be required because of the farm process. The book divides the energy audit in three phases: • Pre-site tasks o Collect and review one to two years of utility energy data. Tabulate and graph consumption and cost data. Check for seasonal patterns. Apportioning energy use among specific building systems such as heating, cooling, lighting and hot water. Pie charts of energy use and cost by fuel type can offer compelling documentation of overall energy uses and expenses. o Obtain mechanical, architectural, and electrical drawings and specifications for buildings. o Draw a floor plan of the building and calculate the gross square footage of conditioned space. o Calculate the energy use index (EUI), and compare it with EUIs of similar building types to have an indicator of the relative potential for energy savings. o Develop a list of potential energy conservation measures (ECMs) and operation and maintenance (O&M) procedures. • Site visit o Prior to go to the site, sit down with the building manager to review energy consumption profiles and discuss aspects of the facility, as operation and maintenance practices, that may have an impact on energy consumption. o Fill out data sheets and look at the systems relating to the ECMs and O&Ms on your preliminary list. o Take pictures as you walk through the building and wrote down problems or additional opportunities. o Take basic measurements of light levels, temperature, relative humidity, and voltages. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 111 • Post-site work o Review and clarify your notes o Review and revise your proposed ECM and O&M lists. Conduct preliminary research on potential conservation measures. o Organize information and write up audit report. (Thumann et al., 2013, pp. 9–14) D. Biogas for waste management Anaerobic digestion is a process through which bacteria breaks down organic matter into simpler organic compounds in the absence of oxygen (Environmental Protection Agency, 2021). Any organic source such as animal manure, wastewater, food wastes, agricultural residues can be used as input resource for the process. The principle of the short carbon cycle illustrates the primary benefit of biogas use over the use of fossil fuel sources. Unlike the later, biogas is generated from fresh organic materials. The CO2 captured by the biomass during its growth is released into the atmosphere during combustion of biogas thus just moderating the natural process over a short period, unlike the release of CO2 after millions of years, when fossil fuels are combusted. Animal farming result in large quantities of manure production which releases a significant amount of methane during storage. Stopping this methane emission is not a possibility. However, biogas provides a systematic method of capturing this high energy content gas and utilizing it as a replacement for other non-renewable energy sources (European Biogas Association, 2020). Anaerobic digestion for biogas production takes place in a sealed vessel called a reactor/digester, which is designed and constructed in various shapes and sizes and vary widely on the technology in use, is site specific and is also widely affected by the composition and combination of feedstock in use. Biogas comprises of methane (CH4), which is the same compound in natural gas, and carbon dioxide (CO2). The methane content of untreated biogas may vary from 40% to 60%, with CO2 making up most of the remainder along with small amounts of water vapor and other gases (U.S Energy Information Administration, 2020). University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 112 When combination of multiple waste resources is used, the process is termed as co-digestion (Jia Lin, 2011). Co-digestion provides a degree of flexibility to the system and in terms of daily operation but also adds complication to the system adjustment of the system parameters. Hence the optimizing the share of the ratio of the of mixture becomes crucial. The installation of an anaerobic digestor system on a micro scale can provide a diversification to the farm revenue and provide self-sufficiency for its energy needs. Also the recirculation of nutrients through the use of the digestate as the bio-fertilizer also promotes the contribution of the technology towards a circular economy (World Biogas Association, 2019). The process also contributes towards food security by reducing dependance on organic fertilizers and recirculating phosphorus into the soil. Also, sanitation and waste management are another benefit provided by the technology, sustainable management of which is a major objective of the study. In addition, the generated biogas also provides a possibility of storage which is not possible in other popular renewable energy sources. However due to financial and technical restrictions, biogas storage in large volume is not recommended on a small farm scale system and only to be done in small quantities to avoid wastage during maintenance (World Biogas Association, 2019). The social benefits are another aspect which makes the operation of the system in a rural setting even more attractive. In addition to the short-term construction employment, growth in newer enterprises contributing to growth in economic benefits can be observed. Also, improvement in crop yield and positive contribution to the agriculture sector can be anticipated. The impact of biogas and biomethane towards reduction in emissions is noteworthy as it contributes to the reduction in fossil fuel dependence, prevents methane slips (Lukehurst and Bywater, 2015) from manure, stores carbon in soils, produces green fertilizers and enables carbon re-use. This gives a possibility to create a scenario of a negative carbon footprint (European Biogas Association, 2020). The use of biogas and biomethane prevents the dependence on fossil fuels. Upgraded biogas provide the possibility for injection of natural gas grid, traditional gas application power generation and use in transport. Even though the grid injection may not be a possibility for Loop Head at University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 113 present the later 3 provides immense opportunity to reduce the dependence on both micro and macro level on imported fossil fuel. In addition, the digestate, leaving the AD after the digestion provides a high grade biological and green fertilizer which substitute and replace the use of mineral fertilizers, avoiding the emissions related to their energy-intensive production (Lukehurst and Bywater, 2015). The upgraded gas also provides a possibility for application in the industrial process which could result in the establishment of potential market for the future (European Biogas Association, 2020). Circular economy and Biogas As mentioned in this introduction circular economy is an alternative to a linear economy. In a circular economy resources are kept in use for as long as possible, with the maximum value extracted from them while in use, and materials and resources are recovered and regenerated at the end of each service life. The application of the circular economy principal is well suited to rural farming communities. As proposed by Blades et al (2017), an anaerobic digestor and biogas production could be at the center of a smart sustainable energy infrastructure. The image below shows the example presented by Blades et al, farms will supply, and slurry feedstock and local industry will supply food waste to generate electricity and biomethane. As it is observed in following image the energy produced will go back into the local community, providing fuel for the farmyard vehicles, local and industrial transport. In this image can be observed that the electricity produced can supply electricity to farms, homes, and industry. The digestate which is a coproduct is utilized as fertilizer (Blades et al., 2017). University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 114 Source: (Blades et al., 2017) Figure: Biogas for Circularity in Dairy Farms E. Solar PV systems Solar photovoltaic power (PV) offers farmers the opportunity to achieve sustainable agriculture and the ability to reduce energy bills. As part of the government policy priorities, incentives to encourage the production of renewable energy has been designed. Further analysis into policies and regulations for solar PV system installation in Ireland can be find in chapter 3. The most common solar energy systems designs are grid-connected, grid-connected with energy storage, off-grid. The grid-connected system is connected to the local electric grid, consuming energy from the grid in case the production cannot meet the demand and sending back to the grid in case the production exceed the consumption. The grid-connected with energy storage system is similar to the grid-connected design but presents an energy storage system usually in the form of University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 115 battery backup. The off-grid system is not connected to the grid and is usually installed in remote areas where it not viable the connection to the electric grid. (Solarvest, 2021) In this work, it is simulated a rooftop grid-connected system and the design is shown in the Error! R eference source not found.: Source: (TendersOnTime, 2021) Figure: Grid-Connected Rooftop Solar PV Systems The Solar PV rooftop system is basically a small power plant at the rooftop, and it consists mainly of the solar PV modules, mounting structure for the modules, an inverter, and the metering. (TendersOnTime, 2021). There are three main types of solar panels in the market: Monocrystalline - Mono-SI, Polycrystalline - Poly-SI and Thin-Film Solar Cells – TFSC. They differ in cost, efficiency rate, lifetime, flexibility on the modules to be installed and space efficiency. (Greenmatch, 2021). F. Policies and Regulations F.1. Circular Economy In 2020 the government published the “Ireland’s National Waste Policy for 2020-2025”. This document states that the government is fully committed to transition to a circular economy. As a University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 116 result the government of Ireland created the “Waste Action Plan for a Circular Economy” , the aim of this plan is that Ireland places at the vanguard of the European Union efforts to transition to a circular economy level (Government of Ireland, 2021b). In the “Ireland’s National Waste Policy for 2020-2025” some of the principal objectives of this policy are mentioned above (Government of Ireland, 2021b): • Shift the focus away from waste disposal and treatment to ensure that materials and products remain in productive use for longer thereby preventing waste. • Ensure that measures support sustainable economic models (for example by supporting the use of recycled over virgin materials). • Harness the reach and influence of all sectors including the voluntary sector, R&D, producers. manufacturers, regulatory bodies, civic society. • Support clear and robust institutional arrangements for the waste sector, including through a strengthened role for local authorities. Bioeconomy is an option to achieve a circular economy in rural and coastal areas, this model can assist these areas in meeting challenges such as regional development and employment growth by introducing new business models, driving energy sector security by boosting the supply of domestic clean energy resources and maintaining and enhancing natural capital and protecting the environment. The government of Ireland is aware on how bioeconomy could move Ireland beyond simply a target compliance and carbon mitigation, in his case bioeconomy is focused in the integration of sustainable economic development which transitions to a low carbon and circular economy (Government of Ireland, 2018). In February 2018, the government of Ireland released the National Policy Statement on the Bioeconomy. In this document the government of Ireland identified key actions for the future success of the bioeconomy. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 117 Some of the key findings stated in the “National Policy statement on the Bioeconomy “are mentioned below (Government of Ireland, 2018): • Ensure that there is coherence between all sectoral strategies which impact on the bioeconomy in Ireland. • Establish a network comprised of representatives of commercial entities operating within the bio-economy and relevant public bodies to inform the future development of the bioeconomy. • Encourage the translation of research into real world applications through promoting collaboration between research institutions (academia) and industry. • Examine how greater primary producer, public and consumer awareness of the bioeconomy and its products could be built up - through knowledge transfer, advisory, sustainable business models, public procurement, consumer awareness campaigns and product labelling initiatives etc. The policies found related to circular economy show that there is an interest from the government of Ireland in developing circular economy initiatives in the country, but more in a general scope. In case of the farming sector, it seems that the efforts to initiate a transition to circular economy started with the “National Policy statement on the Bioeconomy “but the documents shows more a starting point that a clear route on how to reach circular economy on farms. F.2. 5.1.2.2 Solar PV Currently, there are no support schemes in terms of feed-in-tariff in Ireland. However, the arrival of the SEAI solar PV grant in 2018 for existing domestic homes built before 2011 July encouraged micro-generation in private homes and result in a proliferation of solar PV and renewable energy throughout the country. A total of 4,353 homes benefits from the solar PV grant, installing 15MW of micro-generation, at a cost of €10.7m, saving 4,381 tons of CO2 emissions annually. After a scheme review in 2020, the grants rates suffer some changes, including the requirement of University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 118 minimum Building Energy Rating (BER) rating to benefit. The strategy is to ensure the main principle of the scheme is pursued, which is energy efficiency. (Government of Ireland, 2021a). A public consultation proposing a new Micro-Generation Support Scheme (MSS) was prepared by the Department of the Environment, Climate and Communications, from the Government of Ireland. It is part of the scope of the MSS to identify challenges that needed to be addressed to provide a path to market for citizens and communities to generate their own renewable energy, receive a fair and efficient price when doing so. (Government of Ireland, 2021a) In response to this public consultation, in February 2021, the Irish Solar Energy Association (ISEA) elaborated a document providing contributions to the new Micro-generation Support Scheme (MSS) in Ireland. ISEA main goal is to increase in the rollout of solar PV and they emphasize that the incentive and support scheme for rooftop solar PV needs to be revised in order to achieve the government target by 2030. (Irish Solar Association, 2021) Throughout a revision from the Micro-generation Support Scheme (MSS), the ISEA and its members provide their suggestion, as follows: (Irish Solar Association, 2021) • Simplify the pricing structure. • Reduce planning requirements. • No BER preconditions • Inclusion of new builds • No export connection requirement Regarding pricing structure, the Irish Solar Association suggested to include a Clean Export Guarantee (CEG) where more of the value of the Clean Export Premium (CEP) is reallocated upfront. For the planning permission requirements, they pointed it should ease the planning permission requirements for reasonable sized rooftop installations. Concerning BER preconditions and inclusion of new buildings, they recommended expanding the scope, including all rated houses and make new buildings eligible for the MSS scheme to ensure they engage in the solar PV rollout. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 119 For the export connection requirement, the association suggested to avoid the introduction of any connection requirement for any additional export connection. (Irish Solar Association, 2021). No substantial changes was promoted until this reported was written, although good perspectives to come in terms of new policies for Ireland. So, the current policies and regulation regarding solar PV system in the country remain the same as described in the report from International Class 2020. According to the Enerpower website, a renewable energy grant is accessible through the Targeted Agricultural Modernisation Schemes – TAMS system, with grants available for energy efficiencies and renewable energy technologies. The Renewable energy farm grant was announced in March 2019 and opened one month later. (Enerpower 2021) Under certain criterias, the Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEAI) provides grants up to €3,000 for home solar panels. The criterias are: the house must have been built before 2011, must achieve a building energy rating of C3 or better after installing the panels and must get the panels installed by an SEAI-registered contractor. The grant is based on the size of system and battery also increases the grant amount. (Energyd, 2021). As expected, to start in the summer of 2021, with the start of export payments of electricity, it is very likely that the grant scheme will end soon. It is announced by the government that the export payment should start in July 2021 and smart meters will be used to measure the surplus electricity exported to the grid. The plan for the scheme is composed by two main parts: (Energyd, 2021). • Smart Export Guarantee: The Smart Export Guarantee will be available to everybody, no matter when the solar panels have been installed. And the payment of electricity exported to the grid will be based on the market value provided by the electricity supplier, with no cap on the amount of electricity sold. • Clean Export Premium Tariff: It will be a bonus payment on top of the smart export guarantee, valid for solar panel systems installed after June 2021. It will be funded via public service obligation (PSO) levy and payments are capped at 30% of the electricity generated, with a maximum system size of 50kW. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 120 Concerning planning permission, it is required for installation of solar panels on agricultural structures, or within the curtilage of an agricultural holding, house, or any buildings. It is considered exemptions ground mounted solar and roof mounted under certain conditions. The array of the ground mounted system shall not exceed 25m2 and the height of the free-standing solar array shall not exceed 2m. For the roof mounted, it shall not exceed 50m2 or 50% of the total roof area and the solar panels shall be a minimum of 50cm from the edge of the wall or roof on which it is mounted. (Teagasc, 2018). For grid connections to the electricity distribution network operator ESB, no prior permission is required for systems up to 16A per phase that is 3.68kW single phase and 11.04kW three phase. If the system will export energy to the grid and is over 26A/16A, a pre-approval is required. The commission of the system must be in compliance with EN50438. (Teagasc, 2018). It worth mentioning that, when a farmer is purchasing a solar PV system designed to be used primarily or solely in his or her farming business, a flat rate farmer can claim back the VAT incurred on the acquisition of the system. (Teagasc, 2018). Thus, the existing policies on solar PV provide favorable grounds for the initiation of solar PV rooftop systems. Also, future iterations of the policy are expected to get favorable, further confirming a bright future for solar technology. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 121 G. Energy Modelling “Energy models are simplified versions and mathematical representations of the real energy system” (Poudyal and Paatero, 2013, p. 192). A real-world energy system may contain an enormously large number of variables, constants, functions, or situations which even cannot be represented mathematically. A model categorizes similar variables, simplifies them by aggregating, makes rational assumptions, puts limits by assigning constraints, and applies best-fit mathematical equations to depict the real-world system as precisely as possible. According to (Poudyal and Paatero, 2013), a model helps to understand the problem and to investigate the solutions. Similarly, an energy model helps to: a. Allocate resources. The resources, in general, are scarce and expensive. Resource allocation helps in the effective planning of required resources and assists to utilize resources optimally. b. Find optimal solutions. There could be more than one solution to any problems. But within any solutions, there can be just one optimal point. Models use mathematical functions to calculate the optimal point where there are no other feasible solutions. c. Explore and predict the future. The statistical functions applied in the model analyze previous trends and anticipate the future over a period. d. Visualize complex systems in a comprehensible format. With the help of information categorization, visualization techniques, and systemic design, a model can help to understand and visualize the complex system. e. Organize the data. Models allow to enter the data in the desired datatype, and tabulated format which helps in the data query. f. Provide a consistent framework for testing any hypothesis. It could be impractical or expensive to perform tests in the real energy system. Hence, a model is convenient to test the hypothesis repeatedly. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 122 g. Communicate assumptions among decision-makers and between decision-makers and stakeholders. It helps to make decisions transparently by communicating assumptions and believes between the decision-makers and other stakeholders. An energy model can be developed using programming or using any specialized software. G.1. Purpose of Energy Modelling As a model is always the simplification of a real system, it lacks certain details. It depends upon the objective and purpose of the study to identify what level of detail to include and what not to include. The more purposes we want a model to serve, the more complex it becomes. Hence, there is always a tradeoff between objectives and the simplicity of a model. (Ringkjob et al., 2018) have identified four purposes of energy models. A model can be developed to serve just one of the following purposes or to serve several or all the purposes. Source: (Ringkjob et al., 2018) Figure: Purpose of an Energy Model Purpose of an energy model Power System Analysis Operational Decision Support Investment Decision Support Scenario Development University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 123 a. Power System Analysis – In order to study the electrical power systems for power flows analysis, grid stability analysis, fault level studies, etc. in detail, such models or tools are developed. b. Operational Decision Support – To optimize the dispatch of the energy or electrical system, such models are developed. Such models work as a decision support system tool which studies the flexibility in renewable energy-based power system for stable operation of the system. c. Investment Decision Support – An energy model could have the purpose of optimizing the investment in the energy system. The energy sectors have long investment cycles; hence, such models are usually long-term analysis models. d. Scenario Development – One purpose of an energy model is to develop scenarios to evaluate the impacts of various policies. G.2. Approach to Energy Modelling (Nakata, 2004) has conferred about two approaches for examining the linkages between the economy and the energy system while developing energy models, namely; top-down models and bottom-up models. Top-down model – Such models examine a broad equilibrium framework. The framework addresses the feedback between the energy sector and other economic sectors, and between the macroeconomic impacts of policies on national, regional, or global scale. Such, top-down model has limited detail in the energy demand side of the economy. In addition, the details on specific technologies are not directly captured. Bottom-up model – The bottom-up models capture technological details from the engineering standpoint. For instance, a technique related to energy consumption, or supply, with a given technical performance and cost. The bottom-up energy models focus on the microeconomic level and detailed analysis of the technical and economic dimensions of policy. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 124 H. Community Engament Workshops-Discussions H.1. Session 1 Discussion I The first discussion of the day took place after the presentation. The discussion session aimed to address questions from the participants on the presentation content. Also, to have interaction on energy consumption in the residential and farming sector, mainly the consumption pattern and the energy consumption by different appliances. Further to explain the concept of energy auditing to the participants. Important questions: Question: What is the impact of COVID on the energy consumption pattern? Answer: The energy consumption for the residential sector during the COVID period might have increased due to increased household occupancy. But a detailed study is required to validate if there has been any change. A preliminary examination can be done by comparing electricity billings with the pre-pandemic year’s bills for the same period. Question: On the electricity bill the electricity cost is 0.1548 per kWh. How is the total cost calculated? Answer: The total billing amount for the electricity tariff can be calculated by multiplying the tariff rate 0.1548/kWh with a factor of 1.135 to calculate the billing amount. The tariff as mention in the energy bills is net tariff rates which are exclusive of VAT of 13.5%. Question: Is the energy bill inclusive of heating costs? Answer: The average of 350 kWh/month is only for electricity and does not include the cost of heating. Two participants shared their experience and the reduction in energy purchase with the installation of a solar photovoltaic system. The participants have installed a Solar rooftop PV system with a University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 125 capacity of 4.76 kWp and 3.06 kWp at €10500 (€3000 grant) and €7730(€2730 grant), respectively. Discussion II Similar to the first discussion session, a discussion was held to clarify queries on the presentation content. Important questions that were asked by the participants are shown below: Question: Do people have a feeling that the incentive available is not enough for people to make changes to their building? Answer: An incentive is an economic mechanism designed to have something started. It is difficult to develop an incentive, particularly with technology like PV, which is developing at a rapid pace. The nature of incentive is based on the gradual removal of subsidies adjusted to the learning curve of technologies. In the case of building insulation, the incentives are poorly designed, due to the complexity of these activities. Question: It is expensive to implement energy efficiency measures at Loop Head. How can this be resolved? Answer: One of the ways to reduce the cost of energy efficiency improvement is to develop local skills. Additionally, this will create job opportunities and reduce the cost of rolling out energy- efficient technologies as more households will be interested in using the local manpower. Question: What is the best way to insulate Stonewalled house? Answer: The main problem with stone-walled houses is moisture build-up when insulation is applied to the inner walls. Insulation from the outside is the best option to insulate the walls to avoid excess moisture. However, the type of insulation is dependent on the actual wall structure. Question: What are the steps involved in retrofitting a residential building? Answer: In the first step a BER assessor will examine the house for insulation level for walls, roof, and windows, installed heating system, and the total energy demand is calculated. This collected data is entered into the SEAI tool (DIPAIR) to examine the BER rating. After the University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 126 implementation of recommendation based on BER assessment, an energy audit is conducted to check the energy efficiency performance. In the case of installation of a heat pump as per the criteria, a house must reach a certain level of energy performance to maintain the coefficient of performance of the heat pump. Also, a preliminary online assessment can be conducted with SEAI online tools that provide recommendations to improve building insulation to improve the building efficiency before getting an actual BER rating. H.2. Session 2 Discussion I A discussion session was conducted to clarify the topic discussed. Some of the important questions from the participants are: Question: Is the idea of a circular economy only for a large scale or can it be scaled down for a farm? Answer: It can be applied to small farms. But this could lead to higher cost. The best scenario will be to use a combined digester where the waste from farms in proximity can be used. Connecting the farms in proximity to a pipeline could be a potential way to reduce transportation cost. Farm size biogas technologies plant is a mature technology that has been in the market for more than 30 years. The main problem with the small biogas plant is the cost of the auxiliary system which is proportionally higher for smaller biogas systems compared with larger systems. Question: Slurry is an important part of the Farming sector, how is using an anaerobic digester advantageous to farms? Answer: Anaerobic Digester can be used both as a waste management solution and a way to generate Biogas. Additionally, a co-product from the anaerobic digestion can be used as fertilizer. This fertilizer is mineralized and has higher nutrient content and can easily be absorbed by the plants. University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 127 Question: Would it be beneficial to add excess seaweed from beaches to the anaerobic process? Answer: As long as a consistent supply is available, it can be used for biogas production. The IC 2020 conducted a study of using seaweed, but the initial study showed that the biggest obstacle in this approach was the logistic cost, collection cost, and the amount of seaweed available. Seaweed directly out of the sea cannot be used in anaerobic digestion due to the salt presence and requires a cleanup before being fed to the digestor. Question: What is the breakeven size for the Biogas plant? Answer: A recent study from Ireland, "Economic and Environmental Analysis of Small-Scale Anaerobic Digestion Plants on Irish Dairy Farms" (https://www.mdpi.com/1996- 1073/13/3/637/htm) shows that Biogas plant with a herd size larger than 100 will have a payback time of 7 to 13 years. Question: What type of residue can be used? Do general garden waste and food waste / certified compostable packaging waste would be suitable and useable in the AD plant? Answer: Biomass Waste which is rich in fat and starch can be used for anaerobic digestion. It is important to maintain a balanced source of Biomass as the size of the biogas plant depends on the type of feed source. Concerning packaging waste, it can be used for the AD process if the packaging is starch-based and is made with biodegradable materials. Question: What size AD system would deliver the necessary outputs to operate the Waterworld? Answer: The AD system can be estimated using the current energy requirement. Based on IC 2020 study, there are two 500 kW oil boilers and the energy consumption for three months of operation was 147.8 MWh. It was estimated in the same study that a biofuel plant with a capacity of 150 kW will provide sufficient energy required to power and heat water. Discussion II A discussion session followed the presentation session to clarify the questions raised during the presentation. Some of the important questions are listed below: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/13/3/637/htm https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/13/3/637/htm University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 128 Question: Do the panels degrade with age? Answer: The design lifetime of a solar panel is about 20 years on average. Annually panels degrade at a linear rate of 1% to 1.5% of their rated capacity. This degradation is high during the initial age of the panel. The degradation of panels also depends on the ambient temperature and due to the cooler temperature in Ireland, the degradation of the panel is expected to be slower than in a location with a hot climate. Question: Is there a difference in the maintenance requirement for different PV panel technology? Answer: There is no specific maintenance requirement for different panel technologies types, the common maintenance requirement is to keep the surface clean. H.3. Session 3 Discussion I Question 1: How did you galvanize the community to build interest and take ownership of the project? Answer: There were people who were never going to be interested but a majority of people had thought about it. There was a high level of awareness about energy issues, the school children were a good audience. The students were very engaged and understood what was going on from the start. They also raised money to buy shares in the project and discussed how they could make the school building more energy efficient. The presence of the International class was also valuable, they visited almost every house and spoke to the people about energy issues. The community members were more enthusiastic to listen to them. Question 2: Did you receive LEADER Funding? Was there any local authority or local government funding? University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 129 Answer: There was LEADER funding for the community toilet for solar panels to provide warm water. There was also Scottish Rural Development Program funding through the EU. Question 3: Is the land all community owned? Answer: The land was owned by the Applecross Trust which is a charitable trust by the landowners and does not include any local community members. The community is renting the land from them. Because of the land reform by the Scottish government, they have started to sell land. The plan is to buy the land from them because otherwise they will end up owning the scheme as well, which is not acceptable. Question 4: Who did the business plan? Did you have expertise in that area within the group? Answer: We had expert advice from an accountancy firm that specialize in that area, who put the figures together. We also got financing to pay another community-based group who also completed a Hydro scheme a year before, to develop a business plan around those figures and I [Alison] turned it around to the local story. Question 5: How has the Applecross Community Cooperative helped the households improve energy efficiency in their buildings? Answer: Unfortunately, that was not a very successful scheme. There were lots of funding for energy efficiency but retrofitting households in Applecross is very difficult because the houses are very small and are mostly exposed to high winds. By the time the applications were completed there were not any grants, but loans and it was difficult to convince people to take up loans to retrofit their homes. There was training for local workers to carry out the retrofits and they helped some households. Community owned buildings were retrofitted instead because there was funding for that. Discussion II Question 1: How did the community organization start in the first place? University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 130 Answer: Like any sustainable community, there has to be someone to persuade the community. One of our community leaders thought Hydrogen was worth looking at. Some wacky things might have to be done to get the attention of people. In Shetland, school kids were involved in the naming the wind turbines, the prime minister was also invited to launch the project. This grabbed the attention of the community members and encouraged them to take ownership and now the community is proud of the achievement of the Pure Project and the Pure Energy Centre. Question 2: Has the government helped? Is the limited involvement of the government a license to just get up and go? How could they have helped? Answer: The government has not helped much but that has made us more determined to stand on our own and not depend on any government for money. There was a lot of funding for demonstration projects, but this was all put in one area. This could have been moved around a bit to allow communities to get their projects moving a bit quicker. Question 3: How many local jobs has the community organization created? Answer: The community organization has been working for a long time and has employed a lot of people. They also take on students in the summer to conduct projects and provided funding to community groups from the resources they have every year. Question 4: It is better to not be reliant on any government as policy changes rapidly. The best thing for a community is to have its own income. How does this relate to the situation in Ireland? Answer: Because of regulatory framework in Ireland, it is best to work in conjunction with the local authority but with a view of the objective of the community. If the community has their own income, they have a lot more freedom, but it is great if there is a working relationship between the community and the authorities because the community will still need to work within the regulatory framework. Question 5: hat is the involvement of the county council in the development of the SEC master plan in Kilkee? Are there any communities where the SEAI are working with county councils? University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 131 Answer: At the moment there isn’t any involvement from the county council. The community applied for grant through the SEAI as a part of the community energy project. There is a mentor who comes and meets with the community to discuss what needs to be done and the objectives of the community. Then the application is filled, the company registered, and the community project identified. This is used to apply for grant aid. SEAI sent a list of energy auditors to work on the master plan. In Kilkee, the Tipperary Energy Board was selected, and the funding is now available to carry out the master plan. There are communities where the county councils play a role but that is primarily to provide bridging finance. In many communities where there are buildings, housing stocks, civic buildings owned by the local authorities, they become stakeholders. Question 6: Is their funding available to train people? Answer: There are and will be opportunities for further training. There are also training courses in SEAI which are free. H.4. Session 4 Discussion As a prologue to the discussion, there was a poll looking at the areas of interest for the community members present going forward. The results of the poll indicate a high desire for retrofitting households to improve energy efficiency and installation of rooftop PV systems to generate energy locally. This was found to align with the objectives discussed in the first breakout session. The results of the poll asking the participants for their area of highest interest is as shown: University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 132 Question 1: What is the challenge with implementing total retrofits in household? Answer: With the different types of house, of which only a small percentage are terraced and located in the villages in Carrigaholt and Cross, most of the other houses are standalone. Most of the people living the older houses are living alone and as such investing 30,000 Euro for retrofitting is a nonstarter. However smaller roof insulations may be more achievable. Question 2: What percentage of the households can be fully retrofitted? Answer: The data is not available but there could be a survey to count the single houses, older houses that need retrofitting. In the case of holiday homes, the investment required may be questionable based on the amount of time spent in it. However, if a holiday home is insulated, it may allow the owners to use it more often than usual. Question 3: Should the model focus only on occupied residence houses since the holiday homes are occupied for only short periods of time? University of Flensburg Energy & Environmental Management in Developing Countries (M. Eng.) International Class 133 Answer: In the model, the heat demand values for occupied houses and holiday homes are 1300kWh per annum and 273kWh per annum, respectively. The limited use of holiday homes is already accounted for in the model. The values considered are from census data and can be adjusted when new data is available. Question 4: Does the model also consider energy usage during non-use periods, such as energy used for heating to keep the house warm while occupants are away? Answer: A lot people having heating system commands which allows them to control the heating for an hour or two a day, these systems are cheap and minimal. In the model the energy demand is aggregated hourly data and the profile of the heat demand is representative to some extent. This a challenge with all models that work on aggregated data and the model must therefore be simplified to meet specific objectives. Question 5: To what extent would you like to master the use of the Loop Head Peninsula Energy Model? Answer: The community members express interest in mastering the Loop Head Peninsula Energy Model, with two thirds of the participants expressing an interest to get at least an in- depth understanding on the model. This is shown in the poll results below:

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• ICEP Module

an increased identification with Europe (Fligstein, 2008; Kuhn, 2011, 2012; Sigalas, 2010). While this new perspective is commendable because of its focus on attitude formation as the focal point ( [...] map of sentiments towards Europe (e.g. Boomgaarden et al., 2011). Scholars have devised several typologies to address individually relevant atti- tudes towards Europeanization. Some use a twofold [...] to a country’s borders fosters Europeanism (Gabel, 1998). Kuhn (2011, 2012) points out that citizens engaging in a broad array of TAs (e.g. travel abroad, contacts with other EU-nationals) tend to

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• Monika Eigmüller