Biography_Liebig_ENG.pdf Biography: Justus von Liebig 1 Storytelling Teaching Model: wiki.science-stories.org © 2012, S@TM Research Group Biography: Justus von Liebig Justus von Liebig (1803 – 1873) was a German chemist. He taught chemistry at the University of Giessen and the University of Munich. The University of Giessen currently bears his name. Liebig is called the father of fertilizers. He confirmed the hypothesis concerning the mineral nutrition of plants, which became the basis for the development of modern agricultural chemistry. Liebig’s research is considered a precursor to the study of the impact of environmental factors on organisms. He formulated the law of the minimum, which states that the scarcest resource is what limits a given organism. He also developed a process for producing meat extract and founded the company Liebig Extract of Meat Company whose trademark was the beef bouillon cube, which he invented. Justus von Liebig was born into a middle class family from Darmstadt on May 12, 1803. As a child, he was already fascinated by chemistry. When he was 13 years old, most of the crops in the Northern Hemisphere were destroyed by a volcanic winter. Germans were among the most affected. It is said that this experience influenced the subsequent work of Liebig and the establishment of his company. Liebig gained experience as a pharmacist in the Gottfried Pirsch apothecary located in Heppenheim. He studied at the University of Bonn under the guidance of Karl Wilhelm Gottlob Kastner, who was his father’s business partner. When Kastner moved to the University of Erlangen, Liebig followed him and later wrote his PhD there. However, he did not receive his doctoral degree until long after he had left the city. Liebig left Erlangen in March, 1822, in part because of his involvement with a radical nationalist student organization called Korps Rhenania, but also because he was looking for a place to carry out more advanced chemical research. In autumn of 1822, Liebig went to Paris to continue his studies. He worked in the private laboratory of Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, and became friends with Alexander von Humboldt and Georges Cuvier. After leaving Paris, Liebig returned to Darmstadt and married Henriette Moldenhauer, the daughter of a civil servant. In 1824, at the age of 21, Liebig became a professor at the University of Giessen. While in Germany, he founded and edited the magazine Annalen der Chemie, which became the leading journal of chemistry in Germany. In 1837, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and in 1845, started working at the University of Munich, where he remained until his death. That same year, he received the title of baron. Liebig’s research dealt with the analysis of organic matter. In 1831, he created the “kaliapparat”, which was a laboratory device used for determining the amount of carbon in organic compounds. It consisted of five glass bulbs, which were combined and arranged in the shape of a triangle. In order to use this device to determine the amount of carbon in an organic compound, the substance first needed to be burned. In doing so, each carbon atom was oxidized and converted into carbon dioxide (CO2). The resulting fumes passed through the kaliapparat, which was filled with a potassium hydroxide solution (KOH). This solution reacted with carbon dioxide and, as a result, potassium carbonate was obtained. Ignoring ion dissociation, the reaction can be written as follows: 2 KOH + CO2 → K2CO3 + H2O By subtracting the mass of the kaliapparat before combustion from the mass of the kaliapparat after combustion, the mass of CO2 was obtained. With 2 Biography: Justus von Liebig Storytelling Teaching Model: wiki.science-stories.org the mass of CO2, standard stoichiometric calculations could be used to find the mass of carbon in the original sample. One of Liebig’s most recognized and influential achievements was the invention of nitrogen fertilizers. He believed that nitrogen must be supplied to the roots of plants in the form of ammonia. He stated that artificial fertilizers could be replaced by natural fertilizers, such as animal droppings. Nitrogen fertilizers are now widely used around the world, and their production is an important segment of the chemical industry. Liebig formulated the law of the minimum, which states that the development of plants is limited only by the essential mineral which occurs in the smallest (or most minimal) amount. Liebig was one of the chemists who organized the chemical laboratory as we know it today. His method of organic analysis enabled him to guide the work of many students. Thanks to him, a popular device for condensing water vapor is known today as the Liebig condenser (or cooler), despite the fact that it was in common use long before his research began. In 1835, he invented a process for silvering that greatly improved the quality of the reflective coating used for the manufacturing of mirrors. Liebig’s work on the application of chemistry in the physiology of plants and animals played a special role in the world of science. At a time when many chemists, including the famous Jons Jakob Berzelius, insisted on the separation of the organic from the inorganic, Liebig stated that “...the production of all organic substances no longer belongs just to the organism. It must be viewed as not only probable but as certain that we shall produce them in our laboratories. Sugar, salicin [aspirin], and morphine will be artificially produced.” Liebig played a very important role in the reform of politics in the German states through the promotion of science-based agriculture. Liebig liked John Stuart Mill’s book, titled Logic, because it promoted science as a means to social progress and political development, and also because Mill described several examples of Liebig’s research as an ideal for the scientific method. Together with the Belgian engineer George Giebertem, Liebig developed a reliable method of manufacturing beef extract. In 1865, he founded the company that manufactured the extract as an inexpensive alternative to real meat. A few years after the death of Liebig, in 1899, this product was trademarked with the name “Oxo”. His most important contribution to the world of nutrition, “Liebig’s Extract of Meat” was an accidental discovery, which was obtained while researching a cure for a friend. In 1853, Emma Muspratt, the daughter of Liebig’s friend, became ill during her stay in Munich, where Liebig working as a professor. She could not eat, and her intestines were not able to process solid foods. Liebig knew that she would not be able to consume food normally. He reasoned that feeding her meat extract would be an effective method of making sure she was getting enough nutrients. The extract was obtained by grinding chicken meat, which was then placed in a solution of hydrochloric acid. After 12 hours, Liebig filtered the resulting solution, which contained nearly intact proteins. The remnants of acid were neutralized, and it was given to Emma Muspratt to drink. She quickly regained her health. The extract could not be mass produced, because its method of production was too complicated. Liebig died on April 18, 1873. He was buried in the Alter Südfriedhof cemetery in Munich. After World War II, the University of Giessen was renamed, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen. In 1953, the West German post office issued a stamp in his honor. His main works are: 1. Organic Chemistry in its Application in Agriculture and Physiology (1840) 2. Organic Chemistry in its Application in Physiology and Pathology (1842) 3. Familiar Letters on Chemistry (1843) Biography: Justus von Liebig 3 Storytelling Teaching Model: wiki.science-stories.org © 2012, S@TM Research Group References http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/ci/1992/Liebig.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justus_von_Liebig Paoloni C. (1968). Justus von Liebig: eine Bibliographie sämtlicher Veröffentlichungen mit biographischen Anmerkungen. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverl. Biography: Justus von Liebig was edited by Stephen Klassen and Cathrine Froese Klassen and is based, in part on Historical Background: Food, energy and work – developing a science of nutrition written by Andreas Junk. Biography: Justus von Liebig was written by Anna Zeller with the support the European Commission (project 518094- LLP-1-2011-1-GR-COMENIUS-CMP) and Polish Association of Science Teachers, Poland. This publication reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein. EN_Guidelines_Liebig.pdf Suggestions to Teachers (Liebig and nutrition) 1 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Suggestions to Teachers (Liebig and nutrition) Expected results After the lesson, the students are expected to: 1. Write a short text about the way of the production of the Liebig’s meat extract, by their research in the web. 2. Based on the web research, demonstrate the category of food affects the muscular or medal efficiency of human. 3. Calculate the time of exercise concerning the combustion of certain quantity of fat in the human organism for his different activities. 4. Based on the web research, locate the factors in the development of the plants, based on the Liebig’s law of the minimum. 5. Write a text in which to explain the meaning of the Liebig’s law of the minimum. 6. Based on the web research, demonstrate the role of the fertilizers, which are quoted by Liebig. 7. Based on the web research, demonstrate the benefits and the harms from the use of the fertilizers. 8. Write the characteristics of science and the ways it develops in the Liebig’s based on the narration as well the lesson activities, according to the McComas’s list. About the activities of students The proposed students' activities are indicative and they aim at the accomplishment of the above expected outcomes. Moreover, the teacher may choose some of them for the teaching process in relation to its aims, the needs of students and the available time. Finally, she/he can create her/his own activities. About the emergence of the characteristics of science in the narration, these characteristics are quoted in the website, comprehensively (in classification of the stories by NOS). About the locating of the characteristics of Nature of Science in the proposed activities, indicatively, we can quote the following: A) The activity 2 concerns the characteristics of Nature of Science: a) “Science demands and relies on empirical evidence”, b) “Scientific knowledge is tentative but durable” and c) “Science has a subjective element” B) The activity 4 concerns the characteristics of Nature of Science: “Science demands and relies on empirical evidence” and b) “Scientific knowledge is tentative but durable”. C) The activity 5 concerns the characteristic of Nature of Science: “Scientific knowledge is tentative but durable”. 2 Suggestions to Teachers (Liebig and nutrition) Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu D) The activities 6 and 7 concern the characteristics of Nature of Science: “Science demands and relies on empirical evidence” and “Science and technology impact each other, but they are not the same”. E) The activity 8 concerns the characteristics of Nature of Science, which are quoted in the activities: 2, 4, 6, 7 and the next activity. G) The activity 9 concerns the characteristic of Nature of Science: “Science demands and relies on empirical evidence”. Suggestions to Teachers (Liebig and nutrition) were written by Aikaterini Rizaki and Panagiotis Kokkotas with the support by the European Commission (Project 518094-LLP-1-2011-1-GR-COMENIUS-CMP) and the NKUA of Greece. This publication reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained there in. EN_LA_Liebig.pdf Student’s Learning Activities (Liebig and nutrition) 1 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Student’s Learning Activities (Liebig and nutrition) Activity 1 You will watch a video with narration or listen to a story from your teacher about Justus Von Liebig and his scientific work. Please write the most important points of the story according to your view and discuss them in your group (Indicative points of the narration: Liebig’s meat extract for the therapy of Emma Muspratt, the production of the meat extract, ....) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………… Activity 2 Science in the mid 19th century occupied with how theworkers could be supplied with energy for their work in factories. Max Rubner had argued that the law of conservation of energy could be proved to be valid also for humans or animals . ……. “Rubner made efforts to distinguish between the efficacy of the human body to convert their energy into heat. ….. Rubner identified proteins as the substance where the heat-to-energy ratio was least favorable in terms of producing workload from food. If one was a follower of the general ideas of the industrial age where the human body was placed into the intersection between energy, cost and workload, this was very convenient. The major source for proteins was meat which was expensive compared to crop or potatoes, these in turn being the major sources for carbohydrates. 1 And since “workers” should convert their “food” into “work” it seemed obvious that the expensive meat was by no means necessary for their balanced living but should be given as “brain food” to persons, who did an intellectual work.” (see the historical background of this lesson) Please organise an argument in your group if the kind of food affects the muscles or the mental efficiency of people. Try to oppose to the Rubner’s opinion. Fill up the table 1 Max Rubner, Gesetze des Energieverbrauchs bei der Ernährung, Leipzig 1902 2 Student’s Learning Activities (Liebig and nutrition) Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu The kind of the food affects the muscle or the mental efficiency of people We know about the theme that We want to know about the theme We will research in the resources The way of documentation 1. ……………… 2 ……………….. Activity 3 Please visit this website: http://cnx.org/content/m42153/latest/#import-auto-id1921441 and study the paragraphs Energy Conversion in Humans, Power Consumed at Rest, Power of Doing Useful Work. Study the example: Example 1: Calculating Weight Loss from Exercising and: α) each one of you choose one activity from those in table 2, b) calculate the time of exercise for this activity to “burn” 20 grams of fat. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… Actvity 4 The industrial production of Liebig’s meat extract was a poster. Please find more information in the website: http://blogs.princeton.edu/graphicarts/2007/09/from_beef_bouillon_to_chromoli.html#more http://cnx.org/content/m42153/latest/#import-auto-id1921441 http://blogs.princeton.edu/graphicarts/2007/09/from_beef_bouillon_to_chromoli.html#more Student’s Learning Activities (Liebig and nutrition) 3 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Activity 5 The meaning of Liebig’s law of the minimum in the development of the plants is presented on the website: http://www.avocadosource.com/tools/FertCalc_files/liebigs_law.htm Based on this principle, what does define the development of a plant? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………….. Activity 6 The advertising material of an industry for the production of the fertilizers is quoted on the Liebig’s Law of the Minimum. The image from the website: http://www.faqs.org/sec- filings/120606/MOSAIC-CO_8- K/d363718dex991.htm http://www.avocadosource.com/tools/FertCalc_files/liebigs_law.htm http://www.faqs.org/sec-filings/120606/MOSAIC-CO_8-K/d363718dex991.htm http://www.faqs.org/sec-filings/120606/MOSAIC-CO_8-K/d363718dex991.htm http://www.faqs.org/sec-filings/120606/MOSAIC-CO_8-K/d363718dex991.htm 4 Student’s Learning Activities (Liebig and nutrition) Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………… Activity 7 In the 19th century, the use of the fertilizers changed the agriculture and the production of the foods, radically. But today, it is confronted by skepticism. Please discuss in your team about the reasons of the skepticism. Design a research in order to answer the benefits and the harms of the use of the fertilizers. Fill the table About the fertilizers and the benefits and the harms which are caused. We know that We want to know about the fertilizers We will research in the resources The way of documentation 1. ……………… 2 ……………….. Activity 8 Using the following list of ideas that describe the characteristics of science and the ways it develops, and scientists call “Nature of Science” (NOS) try to locate some of them in the story you heard and the above activities of this lesson (McComas (2004). Characteristics of Nature of Science (NOS) 1. Science demands and relies on empirical evidence. 2. Knowledge production in science includes many common features and shared habits of mind. 3. Scientific knowledge is tentative but durable. Student’s Learning Activities (Liebig and nutrition) 5 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu 4. Laws and theories are related but distinct kinds of scientific knowledge. 5. Science is a highly creative endeavour. 6. Science has a subjective element. 7. There are historical, cultural, and social influences on science. 8. Science and technology impact each other, but they are not the same. 9. Science and its methods cannot answer all questions. Scientists argue that in order to learn science one must first understand what exactly science is. Because it is difficult to define science, scientists give a list of its characteristics. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………… Activity 9 ( proposed for home work) With the following designs which visualize the mechanism of weight increase in a child (Source of the design): http://www.39kf.com/cooperate/qk/American-Society-for- Nutrition/017302/2008-12-28-549878.shtml) http://www.39kf.com/cooperate/qk/American-Society-for-Nutrition/017302/2008-12-28-549878.shtml http://www.39kf.com/cooperate/qk/American-Society-for-Nutrition/017302/2008-12-28-549878.shtml 6 Student’s Learning Activities (Liebig and nutrition) Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu FIGURE: The components of energy balance. Carb, pro, and fat represent energy input from carbohydrate, protein, and fat, respectively. AEE, activity energy expenditure; REE, resting energy expenditure; TEM, thermal effect of feeding. Please try to create a dictionary with the terms which are quoted in the picture and the legend. Present a poster about the obesity and the physical exercise. Student’s Learning Activities (Liebig and nutrition) were written by Ioannis Vlachos and Aikaterini Rizaki with the support by the European Commission (project 518094-LLP-1-2011-1-GR-COMENIUS-CMP) and the NKUA of Greece. This publication reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained there in. Historical background - Nutrition.pdf Historical Background: Nutrition Introduction As an emerging branch of science, trophology explores the means and effects of combining foods for maintaining a balanced nutrition and avoiding metabolic diseases. Even with the concern about the adequacy of one’s diet in terms of vitamins, proteins, starch, fruit and carbohydrates, nutrition must be understood beyond eating as a necessity. The roots of trophology, as a science, lie in historic scientific and sociological accomplishments. Initially, the key experiments to verify the links among consumption, energy, and work were conducted within the context of the sociological turmoil of the Industrial Revolution, a time when humans were seen as a resource or, perhaps, more precisely, as living machines. The consequences of industrialization with its new innovations during the late 18th and early 19th century in Europe and North America, such as the mechanization of textile manufacturing, forced countries to employ more workers to manage the increased workload The challenge of converting raw material and supplies into new goods was coupled with that of providing suitable nourishment for the rising number of workers. Hermann von Helmholtz (1821 – 1894) The groundwork for determining the mathematical relationship between raw materials and products and between food consumption and workload was laid by Hermann von Helmholtz (Helmholtz, 1915)1 in 1847 in his formulation of the law of the conservation of energy—the belief that every physical force stood in equilibrium with an equivalent counter-force In terms of physiology, the laws of energy conservation and energy conversion stand next to the ex- periments of Max Rubner who measured the energy converted from food into heat and mechanical work (Rubner, 1902). Several other scientists worked on a theory of nutrition and work to enhance human performance in industry and the military. Of equal importance was prevalence and cause of diseases and the need for cures, which had not yet been assimilated into a theory of trophology. The two most common deficiency diseases were beriberi (a word derived from the language of Polynesian natives meaning “I can’t move, I can’t move”) and scurvy, an illness well known to seamen. It took researchers until 1912 to uncover the nutritional component the vitamin—the “vital amin”—the lack of which was the cause of both diseases. Max Rubner (1854 – 1932) Consumption The well-known adage “No army can march on an empty stomach” illustrates the equilibrium between food consumption and work, but not, necessarily, the work typical for a soldier. Ancient sources written by Roman quartermasters around 100 AD reveal that Ro- man legionnaires lived on an average ration of some 850 grams of grain per day, complemented by meat, vegetables, and fruit (Roth 1995). The figures for the amount of food transported by the Macedonian troops of Alexander II, in his 13-year campaign against the Persian Empire four centuries earlier, equate to compa- rable rations (Hanson 1999, pp. 165 ff.). The accounts originating in the civilian life of Egyp- tian workers in Mesopotamia show a monthly ration of three bar of grain, resulting in an average of 700 grams of flour per worker per day (Huber 2006, pp. 303 – 330). Considering their work was possibly not as strenuous as that of the Macedonian or Roman infantry soldier, the figures, covering a time span from 1000 BC to 100 AD produce a reliable average of the daily nour- ishment requirement. The records all show that grain and meat were the basis of the daily diet of the workers. Historical Background: Nutrition 1 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu 2 Historical Background: Nutrition Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Work and Feeding the Poor Benjamin Thompson (1753 – 1814), known as Count Rumford after 1792, 1 was an American-born British officer who had fought on the British side during the American War of Independence. After gathering both political and military experience in England’s struggle with its renegade colonies, he returned to England in 1782.2 Put on half-pay, he soon left England to search for a new position among the armies of Europe and did so in Bavaria, where the Prince-elector hired him to conduct reforms on both the military and the social system of his country. Thompson took his leave from the British Army, was granted knighthood for his ser- vices to the British crown, and took up his new post in Munich on March 11, 1784. From 1784 to 1788, he worked on the reform pro- gram in Bavaria. He made an extensive investigation of the military and social systems of the two dominating countries in central Europe, Austria and Prussia, and compared the conditions and costs of the armed forces in these countries to those in Bavaria. In late 1788, he presented a reform program to the Elector of Bavaria. He stressed three particular aims to guide the reforms: 1. to end the discrimination and exclusion of the soldier as a professional, 2. to increase the number of troops hired and raise the wages paid to every soldier without raising the annual budget of the Bavarian Army, and 3. to permit the armed forces to serve in a civilian capacity in peacetime. The second and third aims, especially, led to Thompson’s major contribution in terms of feeding the masses. Since he proposed not to increase the budget of the Bavarian army while increasing the number of troops and their wages, he had to find a means to re- duce costs. The first measure was to lower the costs of the soldiers’ uniforms by employing Munich’s beggars in the recently founded militärisches Arbeitshaus (mili- tary workhouse). His plan also tackled the beggar prob- lem by educating the beggars and encouraging them to become independent and make a living.3 1 Thompson’s title Count Rumford refers to the American town in New Hampshire where he married his first wife. The town is called Concord today (see Bouton 1857). 2 Thompson served as Under-Secretary of State for the Colo- nies until 1781 and as Colonel of the King’s American Dra- goons until this regiment was withdrawn to England. 3 Rumford accounted that 7% of the inhabitants of Munich made a living from begging in the streets even though a large number of those beggars were obviously sane and able to work (see Möhl 1903, p.33). Attached to the workhouse was a soup kitchen, which soon became the key facility of the workhouse. Thompson figured out that he could prepare a meal for all the workers that would cost less than any individual would spend to nourish himself. The workers received a free lunch in the soup kitchen consisting of 20 ounces of soup. Thompson developed and published various recipes to prepare as much as 1200 portions of soup at one time, which became known as “Rumford soup.” Initially, it was a mixture of pearl barley, peas, salt, vinegar, and water, but later it was refined with the ad- dition of potatoes and sliced bread.4 Even though it provided a sound basis of carbohy- drates (from the potatoes and the barley) and protein (from the peas), there was, however, some criticism about the Rumford soup. While it had a highly filling effect on the consumers, it did not nourish them well – at least not the adults. Today’s calculations indicate that the first version of Rumford soup provided 570 calories, and the second version, with the substitution of pota- toes for some of the pearl barley, provided only 420 calories.5 Considering, by modern standards, that the 4 The publication of the recipe included the cost for the fuel used in the kitchen and the wages of the cook and the clerks who served the soup to the recipients (Thompson 1804, pp. 274 & 276). 5 Families were encouraged to bring their children to the military workhouse, where they could attend school and Figure 1: Original recipe of Rumford Soup No. 2. The first refinement made was to substitute parts of the barley with potatoes. The soup became considerably cheaper by the use of potatoes. Historical Background: Nutrition 3 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu adult daily intake should be approximately 2000 calo- ries, it is evident that the Rumford soups were efficient only in feeding someone at a low cost but not in meet- ing the daily nutritional requirement, especially for a solid day’s work in the military workhouse. In this re- spect, it failed to fulfill Rumford’s plan to nourish his workers. Welfare organizations, however, adopted the Rumford soup recipe and used it to support homeless people and those unable to work during the Napoleon wars.6 Balancing Input and Output Santorio Santorio (1561 – 1636) was an Italian physi- cian who published his treatise Ars de statica medicina in 1614. The book deals mainly with research on hu- man metabolism and was, in part, based on experi- ments Santorio conducted on himself. On the opening page of his book, one finds an illustration of the ex- help with minor tasks if they wanted to do so (see Redlich 1971, pp. 184 – 216). 6 Today, a broad variety of “Rumford’s soups” exist whose recipes may not have much in common with the soups originally devised by Thompson for use in the soup kitch- ens of the workhouses. perimental setup used. It shows Santorio sitting on a scale (a so-called weighing chair) and a table with cut- lery and dishes next to him. Over a period of some 30 years, he documented the weight of what he ate and drank (ingesta), as well as the excrement (excreta), and accounted for the difference between those two as in- sensible perspiration (Toellner 2000, p. 2371). He found out that the “weight” of the insensible perspiration–2.5 pounds per day on average–was greater than one of his excrements. Santorio accounted for a number of factors such as illness, age, physical activity, nourishment, and sleep, which could increase or decrease the insensible perspiration. Additionally, he invented measurement devices to determine pulse and body temperature. His findings are the first results from a long-term study on human metabolism. Energy in Combustion Whereas Santorio concentrated on the weight of the nourishment he consumed, French scientist Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier (1743 – 1794) focused on heat and combustion.7 The definition of heat was still driven by the ideas of the phlogiston theory. Although this theory was subsequently abandoned in Lavoisier’s time, Lavoisier, himself, contributed a major part to this sci- entific revolution. He strongly believed in the fact that mass was conserved in chemical reactions, an idea originating from the scientific endeavors of the Enlightenment. The idea of mass conservation was the key to one of his most important findings in chemistry, namely, oxidation. Lavoisier realized that when a metal became rusty, the mass of the calcified metal (“calx”, usually weighed in powdered form) had a greater weight than the origi- nal piece of metal. Lavoisier also found that the process could be reversed, that is, when the calx was reduced to the metal by heating, its weight decreased. The phlogis- ton theory could not explain these changes of masses because heat, according to prevailing ideas, was an im- ponderable (weightless) element. Lavoisier developed the idea that the composition of air might be the key to the changes in mass and aligned his experiments with this theory. The theory of combustion could not be further de- veloped until Lavoisier and Priestley, a British chemist, combined their respective scientific findings. The two respected one another mutually even though they had different opinions on the nature of combustion. 7 The Encyclopedia Britannica honors Lavoisier’s accom- plishments by calling him “Father of Modern Nutrition,” online version http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/332700/Antoi ne-Laurent-Lavoisier, dated March 21, 2012 Figure 2: Santorio Santorio in his weighing chair http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/332700/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/332700/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier 4 Historical Background: Nutrition Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Priestley’s views were strongly related to the phlogiston theory, but he controlled his experimental environment better than Lavoisier. Priestley was keenly aware that the air produced during an experiment was different from normal air.8 Lavoisier repeated the experiment of heating common red precipitate of mercury in the same manner as Priestley but paid closer attention to the gas produced in the process. Following his analysis, he found the difference between the experimental gas and fresh air, isolating the element involved in the calcifica- tion process and called it oxygen, referring to the Greek words for “making something sharp” (freely interpreted as “acid producer because of the sour taste of acids). Although Priestley had conducted the same experi- ment, he had not identified oxygen as an element; in- stead, he characterized the gas produced as “de- phlogistated air,” strictly following the phlogiston the- ory. Lavoisier used his newly found knowledge to in- clude oxygen as part of a chemical reaction and was able to extend his theory to the effects of calcination and combustion. Energy in Food Today, the word calorie is synonymous with energy. Many products in modern supermarkets identify the contained energy in kilocalories and the amount of car- 8 Experiment conducted by Joseph Black in 1750 in which he discovered carbon dioxide. bohydrates, fat, and protein in a diagram printed on the product’s packing.9 The etymology of the word “caloric” goes back to the time of Lavoisier and the phlogiston theory when heat was considered to be an imponderable chemical element inherent in every body. The idea of heat as an element has been abandoned, but the word energy still reflects this very notion. It is an expression originating from the Greek language meaning “inherently affect- ing,”10 which was introduced by William Rankine in 1853. Rankine defined energy as “a power to change in opposition to resistance.” He, furthermore, distin- guished between “actual or sensible” energy (e.g., en- ergy of movement) and “potential or latent” energy Rankine, 1853, pp. 109–117). Mid–nineteenth-century science was intensely oc- cupied with the necessity of workers acquiring energy for their work in factories. After von Helmholtz’s publi- cation on the conservation of the “living force,” 11 it seemed obvious working men had to convert their food into mechanical work and that these two sides of an equation, yet entirely unknown, should, nonetheless, be equal. The energy could seemingly be provided by any kind of food because some types of food were appar- ently able to substitute for one another. This was most convenient if one looked upon nourishment as a fuel that had to be converted into work, as the transforma- tion process was now nothing more than the energy gain of a chemical reaction, independent of the nour- ishment in its physical form. In this way, the physiology could be understood by means of analytical chemistry. The German physiologist and hygienist, Max Rub- ner, worked in the domain of thermodynamics for sev- eral decades and eventually presented experimental re- sults by which he intended to prove the validity of the physical law of energy conservation for human or ani- mal subjects. He defined heat as a measure for the in- tensity of life processes. To support his idea, Rubner designed an experi- mental setup to control the products of the energy con- version processes in an animal’s body. The animal calo- rimeter shown in the picture above was an isolated chamber into which a single dog was placed. This chamber was equipped with measurement devices for pressure and temperature and also for the proportions of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the chamber. The 9 In 1860, Max Rubner declared that one calorie is the amount of energy needed to heat up one gram of water from 4 to 5 degrees centigrade (see Ziegler 1922, pp. 520 – 526). 10 Duden, Fremdwörter, Eintrag Energie 11 The term “living force” was then still used synonymously with today’s “energy.” Figure 3: Lavoisier experimenting to determine the compo sition of water. Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica Onl - ine Historical Background: Nutrition 5 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu chamber offered little space for movement so that the dog could not waste his energy in floundering. The idea was that all the energy given to the animal by the food supply had to be turned into heat since conversion into mechanical work would not be possible. Rubner con- cluded that the entire energy contained in the food was eventually converted into heat (diet-induced ther- mogenesis).12 After the amount of energy stored in the carbohy- drates, fat, and proteins had been determined, Rubner made efforts to distinguish between the ability of the human body to convert its energy into heat and me- chanical work. The idea was to identify the substance which was least converted into heat because that would mean that the rest of the energy could be converted into mechanical work. He identified proteins as the sub- stance where the heat-to-energy ratio was least favor- able in terms of producing work from food. If one was a follower of the general idea of the industrial age with the human body at the intersection of energy, cost, and workload, this was very convenient. The major source ve- 12 Elizabeth Neswald, private communication for proteins was meat, which was expensive compared to grain or potatoes, the latter being the major sources for carbohydrates (Rubner, 1902). Since workers should convert their food into work, it seemed obvious that meat was not necessary for a balanced diet. Conse- quently, meat, an expensive commodity, should be given as brain food only to persons who did intellectual work. If one takes into account that at times the human body does not need energy for converting it into me- chanical work, one would come to an alternate conclu- sion. The history of Liebig’s meat extract shows that meat is not the perfect brain food, as such. In the mid1800s, chemistry professor Justus von Liebig be- came well known among the community of chemists. Most of the experiments he conducted were in the area of the new organic chemistry, a branch which scientists thought could not be studied outside of living organ- isms.13 Investigators in organic chemistry were trying to determine the composition of almost any organic substance. Liebig invented an apparatus, called the fi bulb device, with which he could determine the amount of carbon in any organic substance. He was, however, best known for his work on the physiology of animals and also on agricultural chemis- try. Liebig’s key assumption was that, in principle, the process of fat generation during digestion could be demonstrated entirely by means of laboratory chemis- try. Although heavily debated during his lifetime, the assumption turned out to be correct; hence, Liebig was 13 Friedrich Wöhler changed this in experiments between 1824 and 1828 when he synthesized the organic substances oxanic acid and carbamide. Figure 4: Rubner’s animal calorimeter on display during the exhibition “Energie = Arbeit” in Berlin 2010; photography made by Elke Jung-Wolff; reproduction by courtesy of Stiftung Brandenburger Tor, Berlin (Copyrights Stiftung Brandenburger Tor) Figure 5: Commemorative stamp of Justus von Liebig, issued by the Bundespost (Germal Federal Postal Service) in 2003, Liebig’s 200th birthday. Von Liebig is positioned between the Meat Extract, a precursor to today’s instant soups, and the five-bulb device (formerly called Kali-Apparat, Potassium Apparatus), by which the amount of carbon within an un- known substance could be determined. 6 Historical Background: Nutrition Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu the first scientist who successfully linked chemistry, physiology, and medicine. His important contribution to the world of nutri- tion, Liebig’s meat extract, was a byproduct of his at- tempt to help a friend overcome a serious illness. In 1853, Emma Muspratt, daughter of an English friend of Liebig’s, suffered severely from typhoid fever during her stay in Munich, where Liebig had held a professor- ship since 1852. She was unable to eat, and her bowels were incapable of processing solid food. Liebig knew that there was no standard method to nourish someone suffering from typhoid fever and determined that the only way to nourish the patient would be by introduc- ing a meat extract into her body. The extract was made by grinding chicken meat which was then placed into an aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid. After 12 hours, Liebig filtered the remains of the meat from the liquid that contained the protein almost intact. He then neutralized the acid and had Emma Muspratt drink it. She recovered within a short period of time (Judel 2003, pp. 6–15). Because the production of the extract was highly elaborate, the meat extract could not be turned into a commercial success. It was, however, produced and sold by the Munich pharmacist von Pettenkofer as a remedy for sick persons who were unable to eat. Physical and Physiological Calorific Value Knowing about the existence of oxygen was not suffi- cient for explaining the reasons for food components being combusted within the body, at least not until An- toine Lavoisier was able to design experiments in which he concluded that some form of combustion must take place within the human body. The development of heat in chemical processes was the key point of interest to the French scientists Simon Laplace and Antoine Lavoisier. They invented the ice- calorimeter, a sophisticated device to determine the quantity of heat developed by an animal, or which was found latent in solid bodies (Laplace & Lavoisier 1780, p. 355). The heat was used to melt down ice, and the amount of water originating from the process was, in turn, equivalent to the amount of heat originating from the chemical reaction. Together with his assistant, Armand Séguin, Lavois- ier also conducted experiments on how inhaled air is changed by combustion during physical work. He de- vised an experimental setup where a test person would inhale atmospheric air by means of a full-face mask during the measurements. This mask was especially de- vised to lead the exhaled air into a flask containing al- kali liquid. The carbon dioxide in the flask initiated a chemical reaction in which an indissoluble alkali car- bonate was generated. The exhaled air could be ob- served in the flask as bubbles, and the alkali carbon di- oxide precipitated during the process and accumulated on the flask’s bottom. The experiment was conducted in two different ways, first, with a person at rest and, second, with a per- son at work. Lavoisier already assumed that the pur- pose of the human respiration process was to produce heat rather than to supply oxygen for the body. Conse- quently, he compared the output of the exhaled gases to the inhaled gases, in addition to the person’s tempera- ture. The final conclusion from the experiments with Séguin was that animals combusted organic material by means of the inhaled oxygen. Calorimeters, in general, measure the heat devel- oped by chemical reactions. Laplace and Lavoisier had already documented that animals turn organic sub- stances into heat. The next step was to determine how much heat could be developed by any substance, the heat being measured in calorimeters by burning the substance in question to ashes. The heat that is devel- oped in addition to the heat supplied to the reaction is the physical calorific value. Figure 6: Ice-calorimeter in the design of Laplace and Lavois- ier (1780). Ice was filled into the partition wall to isolate the chamber from the laboratory environment and also into the main chamber (with the basket). The target containing or d veloping heat was placed in the basket and melted the ice. The amount of drained water was equivalent to the heat develope in the reaction. e- d Historical Background: Nutrition 7 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu The calorimeter in the style of Hopkins (see Fig. 7) determines the amount of energy released through a chemical reaction by pouring the reacting liquids into a common reaction chamber. Two thermometers are used to monitor the alteration of temperature during the reaction. The physical calorific value is not entirely relevant as far as matters of the human metabolism are con- cerned. The calorific value of any nourishment varies for every species that consumes it; hence, the relevant value here is the physiological calorific value. It can be roughly determined by burning the excrement of the animal or human in question and comparing this value with the physical calorific value of the food consumed. The difference will then be the physiological calorific value. It has to be noted, though, that the physiological calorific value cannot be regarded to be an exact value. It varies not only from species to species but is, more or less, a personal value of the animal (or human) who is being tested. Nutrition for Prevention of Deficiency Diseases One of the oldest diseases known to seafarers is scurvy, today known to be caused by lack of Vitamin C. The oldest reports about sailors who suffered from this defi- ciency disease date back to the days of antiquity in Egypt. It was well known that men aboard trading ships became sick, but the reason was unknown. Due to the necessity of having to operate as a viable unit, ships had large amounts of zwieback and brined meat onboard because these could be stored over a longer period of time. These products, which would deliver a good basis for the energy needed every day, could be supple- mented with fish or cheese; however, with the latter be- ing prone to spoil within a short time, a substitute was needed when these had been consumed. A cure for scurvy was not found until the 18th cen- tury when a Scottish physician named James Lind (1736 – 1812) found a treatment to overcome this sick- ness (Lind 1753, pp. 192–196). He conducted an ex- periment on a dozen persons who were apparently af- fected by scurvy and showed most of the already well- known documented symptoms. He divided the patients into six pairs and gave them each a specific diet in order to test the effects of nutrition and also of hygiene. After 14 days, Lind was able to conclude that the only group who had overcome all of the scurvy symptoms was the one who had oranges and lemons on their specific menu. He left it to the experience of others to confirm the efficacy of these fruits, meaning he was well aware of having found a cure but not of determining the rea- son for the high effectiveness of the cure. The research on beriberi, a deficiency disease caused by lack of Vitamin B1, was even more successful. It began with different assumptions about the possible causes of the illness and was founded on wrong conclu- sions on why it can be cured. The principal scientist in- vestigating beriberi was the Dutch Christiaan Eijkman (1858 – 1930) who had the chance to explore the cause and cure of beriberi in what today is called a large-scale study. After advanced training in Germany, where Koch had recently identified bacteria as the cause of tuberculosis and cholera, Eijkman was convinced that beriberi was caused by generic germs, as well, and tried to prove it in a carefully controlled study (Allchin 1996). The state of Java, where Eijkman conducted his experiments, had, at that time, some 280,000 prisoners. Eijkman ordered a diet of rice for these prisoners: one of polished rice, one of unpolished rice, or a mixture of both. He then recorded the incidences of beriberi among the various groups of prisoners (Eijkman 1897, pp. 187 – 194). Other factors concerning hygiene which could have caused illnesses, such as ventilation or per- meability of floors to water, had been ruled out. Eijkman concluded that the prisoners who lived on the polished-rice diet were much more affected by beri- beri than the others. From an older study, he had de- Figure 7: Calorimeter, Nevil Monroe Hopkins, Experimental Electrochemistry (1905). This calorimeter was used to meas- ure the heat developed during the reaction of two liquids. The drain container D is also the reaction chamber into which the second liquid from storage container G is con- veyed. Two thermometers, I and J, are introduced into the reaction chamber and the insulating wall to control the heat developed by the chemical reaction. 8 Historical Background: Nutrition Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu termined that the white rice contained the germ that caused beriberi and that the red coating, which was re- moved by polishing the rice, provided an antitoxin. This point is crucial to understanding why successful experiments can still lead to wrong conclusions. Since then, it has been shown that beriberi is a deficiency dis- ease resulting from a permanent lack of an essential nu- trient and not one caused by an active, infection- causing germ. Casimir Funk was probably the first researcher who was able to coalesce all of the effects of deficiency dis- eases into a constructive theory (Funk 1912, pp. 341– 368). He accounted for scurvy, beriberi, and many other diseases as those which break out if “an unvaryin diet is partaken of for long periods” because of the “de- ficiency in a substance which is necessary for the me- tabolism” (Funk 1912, p. 341). Funk stated that all but one of the diseases covered in his 1912 paper could be cured simply by adding a new class of organic sub- stances, which he called vitamins (short form for vital amin, referring to the chemical structure of the new substance), to one’s diet. He distinguished the vitamins already discovered by contemporary researchers by stating which disease each cures; for example, today’s vitamin C would have been the “scurvy vitamin” and vitamin B1 the “beriberi vitamin.” Funk also illustrated the method and the amount of the beriberi vitamin that could be precipitated from an aqueous solution, as well as the chemical formula for the vitamin. g He also gave an illustration of its curative effects by administering a dose of the beriberi vitamin to birds suffering from beriberi. A minute dose of 40 milligrams was sufficient to cure a pigeon in a very short time, and it also prevented the reappearance of beriberi for a time span of seven to twelve days even when the pigeon was placed on a polished-rice diet again. Two things seemed to be obvious from this experiment: first, the vitamin as a curative agent seemed to have activated the curative process, and second, the body is able to store and utilize the vitamin efficiently. Acknowledgments The author wishes to thank Don Metz for his patience of job in correcting faulty terms in the author’s manuscript and to Cathrine Froese Klas- sen and Stephen Klassen for detailed editing of the document. References Allchin, D. (1996). Christiaan Eijkman & the Cause of Beri- beri. In Doing Biology, Glenview: Harper Collins. Bouton, N. (1857). The History of Concord: From Its First Grant in 1725 to the Organization of the City Government in 1853. Concord: Benning W. Sanford. Eijkman, C. (1897). Ein Versuch zur Bekämpfung der beri- beri. Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie für klinische Medizin, 149. Funk, C. (1912). The etiology of deficiency diseases beriberi, polyneuritis in birds, epidemic deopsy, scurvy, experimen- tal scurvy in animals, infantile scurvy, ship beri-beri, pel- lagra. Journal of State Medicine, 20. Hanson, V. D. (1999). The Wars of the Ancient Greeks, Lon- don: Cassell & Co. Wellington House. Helmholtz, H. von. (1915). Ueber die Erhaltung der Kraft. In: Wilhelm Engelmann, Ed., Ostwalds Klassiker der exakten Wissenschaften, no. 1. Leipzig. (On the Conservation of Force). Huber, I. (2006). Von Affenwärtern, Schlangenbeschwören und Palastmanagern: Ägypter im Mesopotamien des ersten vorchristlichen Jahrtausends. In R. Rollinger, & B. Trusch- negg (eds.), Altertum und Mittelmeerraum: die antike Welt diesseits und jenseits der Levante. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. Judel, G. K. (2003). Die Geschichte von Liebigs Fleischextrakt. Spiegel der Forschung (Universität Gießen), 20(1), 6–15. Figure 8: Sketch of Funks distillation process to obtain the beriberi vitamin. He states in his 1912 publication, that an analogue process could also be used to precipitate the scurvy vitamin. Figure reproduced from Funk 1912, p. 347. Laplace, S., & Lavoisier, A. de. (1780). Mémoir sur la chaleur. Mémoirs de l’Académie des sciences. Lind, J. (1753). A treatise on the scurvy, London. Möhl, F. K. (1903). Die Vorläufer der Organisation der heuti- gen Armenpflege in München, insbesondere das Ar- menpflegeinstitut des Grafen Rumford. Bamberg. Rankine, W. (1853). On the General Law of the Transforma- tion of Energy. Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Sci- ence, Series 4, 5(30). Redlich, F. (1971). Science and Charity: Count Rumford and his Followers. International Review of Social History, 16(2). Roth, J. P. (1995). The logistics of the roman army at war. Lei- den: Brill Publishing. Rubner, M. (1902). Die Gesetze des Energieverbrauchs bei der Ernährung. Leipzig/Wien. (The laws of energy consump- tion in the field of nutrition). Rubner, M. (1902). Gesetze des Energieverbrauchs bei der Ernährung. Leipzig. Santorio, S. (1614). Ars de statica medicina. Thompson, B. Count Rumford (1804). Kleine Schriften poli- tischen, ökonomischen und philosophischen Inhalts. München. Toellner, R. (Ed.). (2000). Illustrierte Geschichte der Medizin, Vol. V. Augsburg: Weltbild Verlag. Ziegler, M. (1922). The history of the calorie in nutrition. Sci- entific Monthly, 15(6), 520–526. Historical Background: Nutrition was written by Andreas Junk with the support of the European Commission (project 518094-LLP-1-2011-1-GR-COMENIUS-CMP) and the Uni- versity of Flensburg, Germany. This publication reflects only the views of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the informa- tion contained therein. Historical Background: Nutrition 9 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu 10 Historical Background: Nutrition Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Introduction Energy in Food Nutrition for Prevention of Deficiency Diseases Historical Ressources.pdf A Primary Sources Liebig, Justus et. al.: Liebig’s Extract of Meat, in: The Lancet 86, Ausgabe 2199 (10.1865), S. 469, doi: 10.1016/S0140- 6736(02)58409-9. Parloa, Maria/Liebig’s Extract of Meat Company: One Hundred Ways to use Liebig Company’s Extract of Beef: A Guide for American Housewives, London 1897. Squire, W.Stevens: Liebig’s Extract of Beef and Food for Infants, in: The Lancet 86, Ausgabe 2196 (09.1865), S. 386–387, doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)55227-2. B Secondary Sources Brock, William H.: Justus von Liebig: The Chemical Gatekeeper, Cambridge 1997. Gratzer, W. B: Terrors of the Table: The Curious History of Nutrition, Oxford 2006. Guggenheim, K Y: Johannes Müller and Justus Liebig on Nutrition, in: Korot 8, Ausgabe 11-12 (1985), S. 66–76. links.pdf http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G-NDbuNbCaY& Story_Liebig_ENG.pdf Story: Justus von Liebig’ s life-saving extract 1 Storytelling Teaching Model: wiki.science-stories.org Justus von Liebig’ s life-saving extract Sunlight was sipping through the tall window, falling onto the book held by a man with an oval face. White hair surrounded his friendly face, focused on the reading. His eyes were quickly running through the lines fulfilled with letters and he was absorbed by the reading. ‘Mr Liebig, Mr Muspratt has come’, a housemaid had to repeat the sentence twice until the older man could tear himself away from the voluminous book and smiled gently. A guest came in, following the housemaid. Liebig smiled and came near the newcomer. ‘Muspratt! It’s so kind of you that you came to see your old friend. How are you?’, he showed his friend a chair next to the table. They both sat down to drink the served tea. ‘Have you seen how all the factories are growing? There is a new factory in the suburbs. Sometimes it is hard to bear the smoke after the coal burning. The black fog is literally everywhere!’, Muspratt started to report everything he managed to observe last week. He knew very well that his friend was sometimes so involved in his research that it was hard for him to follow all the infor- mation. Liebig looked at his friend with disbelief, as if he wanted to confirm his friend’s thoughts. ‘Oh, I haven't been on the streets for so long to feel on my own all these negative consequences of the smog!’, Liebig sighed and took a sip of the tea. ‘Do not complain, my old friend! such a brilliant mind as yours cannot bother itself with the fumes from the power station. You’ve got enough work with the new issues of ‘Annalen der Chemie’ magazine’, Muspratt looked at his friend with ad- miration. He admired Liebig’s works since long ago and he always claimed that his friend’s mind went far beyond the times they lived. Industrial revolution? What was it for the Liebig, he had a lot on his plate. I would like to emphasize that your discov- ery of the process for silvering of glass is brilliant! I have bought recently the modern mirror made us- ing of your method for my daughter. It’s amazing how beautiful she is in it!’, the guest shook his head with disbelief and Liebig only smiled modestly. ‘Ah, I’ve almost forgotten! I have read recently that you found out why the crops are sometimes worse and sometimes better, and I am sure that this will be of use in farming. I have been dreaming all my life about supporting the development of farming. I was great- ly surprised when I drew the conclusions from my research. Imagine that if there is one mineral less in the soil, the plant develops until it uses this substra- tum, and afterwards it’s development stops.’, Liebig looked at his friend with the same disbelief with which he had looked at his students when he dis- covered this relationship. ‘I’ve heard that many people call your dis- covery The Law of the Minimum. Do I understand well that the mineral which is in the soil in the smallest amount will limit the development of the plant?’, Muspratt assured himself, trying to under- stand his friend the best he could. Liebig nodded. ‘That’s not all. I’ve managed to work out the formula of the nitrogen fertilizer. We are pro- ducing it for many weeks in the lab. All the students were really involved. Finally, we conducted the ex- periment on 150 seedlings. We were not only water- ing, but also fertilizing fifty of them. Another fifty were only watered. The last fifty were watered and fertilized with the animal faeces.’ Liebig took a sip of the tea, looking into his friend’s eyes. ‘Do you know that the ones fertilized with our fertilizer or natural one were growing faster and more luxuri- ant? I think that this is my main achievement! Think about it: now the farmers will be able to fer- tilize their fields even with the excrements of the domestic animals and the crops will be much big- ger!’, the sparks of enthusiasm were dancing in Liebig’s eyes when he was talking about his exper- iments. ‘Liebig, I was always wondering what made you interested in the scientific career. It is clear that your mind is outstanding, but…Have you always wanted to become a scientist?’, Muspratt looked at his friend with expectation. It seemed that he fi- 2 Story: Justus von Liebig’ s life-saving extract Storytelling Teaching Model: wiki.science-stories.org nally took courage to ask the question that both- ered him for so long. ‘Not always, but I can say that most of time. It began when I was 13. it was the year 1816. The spring was supposed to come, but the bitter frost remained since January and it didn’t seem that it was going to ease. The stock started to finish and people started starving. The farmers didn’t have the possibility to sow the fields, because the thick coat of snow was everywhere. I lived in Darm- stadt then and I was frightened, looking at the crowds of starving, skinny people who were coming to the city. After the frosty winter, the spring finally came, but too late for the farmers for sowing the fields. The starvation was spreading more and more: firstly it touched the poor, then the middle class. I knew what the lack of food feels like. The next winter, although it was lighter, was much worse than the previous one because of the lack of stock. Famishing people were dying on the streets, the disaster hit everyone. Already then I was think- ing intensively how to improve the farming, how make the crops bigger, so the people would never starve again.’, Liebig smiled warmly as if another sun rose in the room. Friends were drinking tea, talking about the Liebig’s works and Muspratt’s family for a long time. *** The ringing doorbell interrupted Liebig’s thinking. Who could have come without the an- nouncement? It has been a long time since some- one visited the scientist without sending the ticket with the information about the visit. After a while, instead of the housemaid, breathless Muspratt came to the room. His red face immediately re- vealed that he hadn’t taken the droshky, but he had run as fast as he could. The man couldn’t take a breath for a while, but when he finally looked at Liebig, a scientist was shocked by the despair in his friend’s eyes. ‘Muspratt! What happened? Sit down, take a breath.’, he waved to the housemaid for the glass of water for the guest. When his friend drunk all the water, he looked at Liebig with grief. ‘I have no idea what to do! I feel so useless, so awkward… I can’t do anything. All my attempts came to nothing! She is still losing weight, she is weaker and weaker. It is the ghost of her former self!’, Muspratt hung his head and buried his face in his hands. Liebig was looking at him confused and he didn’t know what was exactly happening. After a while, his friend continued. ’My dearest Emma! She is dying, Liebig.’, the pain in his eyes overwhelmed Liebig. ‘Tell me what’s going on.’, demanded the scientist. He knew that Muspratt would do every- thing for his daughter. He would leave no stone unturned for her happiness. If she was dying… Not even a single mean could help. ‘Emma is ill. At the beginning, we thought it was just a food poisoning, but it continued for too long. Finally, she caught the fever, and we had to realize that she suffered from cholera. Since 1,5 weeks she is lying in her bed and she is losing weight. She looks like the ghost of a person. She is eating the meals, but she can’t keep any food. We don’t know what to do.’ Liebig didn’t say a single word. He asked his housemaid for a coat, caught his friend’s arm and led him out to the Muspratt’s house. ‘I will try to help, maybe I will manage to find a solution. I am not a doctor, but…’, he smiled at his friend, trying to hearten him. *** ‘Darling, Mr Liebig has come to see what’s happening to you’, Muspratt went down to his knees near the bed of his semiconscious daughter. It seemed that she wasn’t really sure what was happening around. ‘Tell me exactly what is happening’, Liebig asked Muspratt and his wife. They briefly told him the story of Emma’s illness. The strangest thing was that she was skinnier and skinnier, and she could not maintain any food. The scientist was silent for a moment, looking at the weak girl in the bed. ‘This is part of the illness, I know – I think we need to enable her body to assimilate some food. I don’t know why, but it seems that her intestines don’t absorb the nutrients.’, he rubbed his forehead in meditation. ‘I will try to prepare for her a special broth, maybe it will work.’, he immediately left the room, leaving Emma’s parents in grief. He couldn’t waste even a single moment. Story: Justus von Liebig’ s life-saving extract 3 Storytelling Teaching Model: wiki.science-stories.org © 2012, S@TM Research Group *** ‘Professor…’, a student timidly came to Liebig. ’You should go to bed. You haven’t slept for 3 days’. Liebig looked at him feverishly. ‘I don’t have time, I have to try to save Emma.’, Liebig came back to blending the gruel he had been creating for few last days. The student was looking at it with interest. Liebig started to explain everything to the student. ‘Firstly, Greta cooked the chicken, then I asked her for grinding it that a person who cannot eat on her own will be able to eat it. When every- thing was ready, I immersed it in the solution of the hydrochloric acid for the whole night. Now we have to strain the chicken. I will check if Emma will start absorbing this type of food.’, the student only nod- ded his head and started to strain another portion of the extract. *** ‘Emma, please try to take a few more sips, Muspratt’s wife asked semiconscious girl who was lying in the bed. Her daughter was opening her mouths unwillingly, too weak to swallow the gruel. Liebig was observing the action with the anxiety. Finally, they managed to feed her with another portion of the extract. ‘It’s the third day… Do you think she is get- ting better?’, Liebig asked uncertainly. Muspratt looked at him with the sadness in his eyes. ‘At least, she is no longer vomiting.’, he said quietly. ‘We have to hope for the best, maybe it works. And if not …’ he waved his hand softly, not daring to mention the consequences if the girl would not be able to keep some nourishment. He stood up, hugged Muspratt and kissed his wife’s hand. ‘Hold on, please’, he left quietly, closing the door. *** Three days later, Muspratt was again an- nounced as a visitor to Liebig. Liebig was quick going to the door himself, and when he saw Muspratt, standing there in the door, smiling and joyful, he already knew the news. ‘It worked, Lie- big, it worked’ Muspratt did not need to say more, Liebig quickly grasped his coat and off the two men were. Being back at Emma’s bed, the change could not have been more dramatic – even though the girl was still weak, she had her eyes open, and she was evidently recovering. Liebig smiled, being aware that his desperate attempt might not just have saved Emma, but opened another route to a scientific discovery. *** Few weeks later Emma recovered com- pletely. She was strolling through the park with her father and Liebig while in the scientist’s mind a new idea was developing. It was an idea of estab- lishing the company that will produce the extract. While he was looking for the medicine for Emma, he was working not only on the poultry extract, but also beef one. During the experiment, he no- ticed that the strained meet that was lying on the glasses had a quite hard solid form. He was melt- ing it again in the water. The scientist was lost in thought for a moment. He thought that it was a great idea to establish his own company producing the stock cubes, especially during the times of the industrial revolution. References http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/ci/1992/Liebig.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justus_von_Liebig Paoloni C. (1968). Justus von Liebig: eine Bibliographie säm licher Veröffentlichungen mit biographischen Anmerkungen. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverl. Story: Justus von Liebig’ s life-saving extract was edited by Peter Heering and is based, in part on Historical Back- ground: Food, energy and work – developing a science of nutrition written by Andreas Junk and on Biography: Justus von Liebig written by Anna Zeller. Story: Justus von Liebig’ s life-saving extract was written by Anna Zeller with the support by the European Commission (project 518094-LLP-1-2011-1-GR-COMENIUS-CMP) and Polish Association of Science Teachers, Poland. This publica- tion reflects the views only of the author, and the Commis- sion cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.
-
File type
- application/zip
-
Referenced at
-