background_energy.pdf Background for stories concerning energy 1 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Background for stories concerning energy From the educational point of view, there appear to be three aspects which are relevant with respect to teaching energy in lower secondary school: Energy as a concept, together with energy conservation, re- newable energy, and energy efficiency. The aim of this historical background is to form a basis for stories that may be used individually or combined, and that enable teachers to address these three aspects. The historian and philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn pointed out that up to twelve researchers can be identified as being involved in the establish- ment of the principle of energy conservation (Kuhn 1959). One of those researchers, James Prescott Joule, can be seen as a central figure to this background. Joule is a central figure as he is the person who established the mechanical equiva- lent of heat – at least this is the standard notion. However, if one takes a closer look, then it gets evident that it was not just Joule who is responsi- ble for establishing his work, but also William Thomson, who later became Lord Kelvin. Yet, Joule himself did not start from scratch and par- ticularly referred to the work of Benjamin Thomp- son, Count Rumford, who carried out researches about heat in late 18 th / early 19 th century. Actually these researchers were more oriented on practical purposes than those of Joule. The first significant aim towards renewable energies can be seen in the work of the French teacher Augustin Mouchot who, in the 1870ies carried out substantial re- search on using solar energy for industrial ma- chinery. Count Rumford and his work on heat Rumford’s work on heat covers a huge variety of researches; he worked significantly on the topic for some 25 years. His first research in this respect resulted from his military context: he examined the quality of powder (Thompson 1781). In doing so, he suspended the cannon as well as a ballistic pendulum, the amplitude of the oscillation after firing the powder served as an indication of its quality. Whilst the initial research in not that important with respect to energy, one detail actually is: Rumford observed that the cannon heated up most when he did not shoot a bullet but just made the gunpowder explode in the barrel. When being in Munich and having the responsibility for the pro- duction of weaponry, Rumford made another ob- servation that he turned into an experiment: In the process of cannon-boring, the metal heated up. Rumford used a blunt drill in order to increase the Fig. 1: Rumford’s experiment on the quality of gun-powder. (Thompson 1781) 2 Background for stories concerning energy Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu heat production. In doing so, he was able to heat up the water (and that was a mass of 26.58 lb) that was initially intended for cooling to the boiling point (Thompson 1798). At the same time, Rumford demonstrated that the heat capacity of the metallic chips that were pro- duced in the process of drilling was not changed in their heat capacity. From his experiments, Rum- ford concluded that heat can be produced from mechanical work in an unlimited amount – as the production of material substances was not in ac- cordance with the accepted understanding, he had also to conclude that heat is not a substance but the motion of the smallest particles of matter. Doing so brought him in conflict with the most recent accepted doctrine with respect to heat: In 1789 the French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoi- sier published his famous Traité Élémentaire de Chimie … (Lavoisier 1789). In this monograph as well as in a variety of research papers Lavoisier used the term caloric. For Lavoisier, caloric was one of the "simple substances belonging to all the kingdoms of nature, which may be considered as the elements of bodies" (Lavoisier 1790, p. 175). This substance was said to be weightless and thus considered to be one of the imponderables. Other imponderables were the matter of light (in Lavoi- sier’s nomenclature lumic), moreover, there were one or two electric and magnetic fluids. Caloric was taken to be the explanation for the phenomena connected with heat. In some attributes caloric was very similar to the older substance named phlogiston, although there were important differ- ences between Lavoisier's System and the one founded by Becher and Stahl. This played also a role in naming the first instrument that enabled measurements of the amount of heat calorimeter (Roberts 1991, see also Beretta 2005), the ice calorimeter. For the discussion of Rumford’s work with re- spect to energy conservation, the importance of Lavoisier's work lies not in the fact that his system can be seen as the accepted theory – and actually Rumford’s work did not change this impression significantly, on the very contrary: In the first quarter of the 19 th century, heat was a material substance and most researchers identified this substance with Lavoisier’s caloric. The im- Fig. 2 Rumford’s cannon-boring experiment (Thompson 1798). Background for stories concerning energy 3 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu portance for Rumford’s work lies in the postulated indestructibility of the elements. As caloric was one of Lavoisier's elements (even though impon- derable, but it was listed in his system as an ele- ment such as Oxygen or Iron), it was obvious that this substance could neither be destroyed nor cre- ated. Thus the idea of conservation was estab- lished in the theory of heat. Whilst Rumford’s cannon boring experiments can be seen in direct relation to the establishment of the theory of heat, two other of his research projects appear to be relevant in the context of the project too: On the one hand, he analyzed the ra- diant heat. This became a topic in natural philoso- phy at the very beginning of the 19 th century when William Herschel (who is besides this work best known for his discovery of Uranus) came in a series of measurements to the conclusion that the radiation from the sun did not just consist of light, but also contained radiant heat which had its larg- est intensity beyond the red part of the spectrum. 1 These ‘new rays’ became an issue of investiga- tion for several researchers, most namely John Leslie who published in 1804 a monograph deal- ing with this issue. However, Rumford published 1 The background of these experiments was the idea to find out which part of the (visible) spectrum might affect lenses in a telescope in the most significant manner due to heating up the glass. also in 1804 an investigation in which he analyzed the ability of various materials to emit radiant heat. 2 Whilst this inquiry may be seen as funda- mental research, there are also aspects of applica- bility in his investigation: it was relevant with respect to the improvement of the efficiency of stoves, an issue that had been central to Rumford’s work for decades. Rumford developed an instrument that he called thermoscope. This instrument consists of a glass capillary that is U-shaped. At both ends of the capillary, hollow spheres are attached. These spheres are blackened and made from very thin glass. Due to the blackening, the glass spheres absorb radiant heat, as the glass is very thin, the absorbed heat is conducted to the air inside of the sphere. As the capillary is closed, due to the in- crease of temperature, the pressure is increased as 2 See Leslie (1804) and Thompson (1804), for a discussion of these investigations see Olson (1970). Fig. 5: Rumford’s thermoscope, Thompson 1804 Fig. 4: Herschel’s experimental set-up for the dis- covery of radiant heat, Herschel 1800. Fig. 3:Ice calorimeter by Lavoisier and Laplace (Lavoi- sier 1789), https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/3/35/Ice-calorimeter.jpg 4 Background for stories concerning energy Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu well, consequently, the pressure on each side is related to the absorbed radiant heat. In the middle of the horizontal part of the glass capillary, a drop of alcohol is placed. When the pressure in both arms is different, the drop moves towards the side of lower pressure. Consequently, the gas at lower pressure is compressed whilst the gas at higher pressure expands until pressure equal pressures are reached. Between the two spheres, a copper disc is placed, thus the heat emitted from a source that is placed in a geometrical line with the two balls can affect only one of the spheres. The thermoscope is placed on a wooden frame. On both sides, heat sources (metal cans filled with hot water) can be placed and changed in their dis- tance towards the thermoscope. At the beginning of each experiment, both heat sources are placed in the same distance. Due to the absorption of radiant heat and the resulting different pressure, the alcohol drop starts to move. The experimenter increases the distance between the stronger heat source and the thermoscope until the alcohol drop is in its initial equilibrium position. Comparing the distances of the two sources to the thermoscope serves as an indicator of their emission – Rumford took it for granted that the heat emitted from de- creases with the inverse square of the distance. This relation was already demonstrated by the Swiss mathematician Johann Heinrich Lambert for the decrease of light intensity with the distance, a work Rumford was through his own work in the field of photometry familiar with. Lambert’s rela- tion s appeared to be plausible for radiant heat as well – on the one hand due to its similarity with light, on the other as an isotropic radiation de- creases with the inverse square of the distance. Yet, the question of improving the efficiency was not limited to his work on radiant heat and stoves. Another research that can be seen in this context was his analysis of the insulating proper- ties of different materials. This analysis was also carried out whilst Rumford was minister of war in Munich, and was in a broader sense related to a military issue. The aim was to develop the basis for determining the most suitable material for the uniforms of the Bavarian soldiers who ideally would get only one type of uniform that was sup- posed to be suitable for winter as well as summer. Like in the experiment on analyzing radiant heat, Rumford used metal cans as heat sources. These cans were covered with different clothing materi- als, hot water was filled in, and Rumford observed the decrease of the waters temperature. In doing so, he was able to determine the most efficient way to insulate the human body. To summarize, Rumford can in retrospect be identified as a starting point for various develop- ment in the energy science – he carried out exper- iments that were related to the formulation of the principle of energy conservation as well as to a field that nowadays can be labeled ‘energy effi- ciency’, particularly with respect to different ma- terials. The formulation of the principle of energy con- servation Joule started his research in analyzing electri- cal motors. 3 This was directly related to his work in the brewery his father owned. Here, steam en- gines were used, and, after the development of the electrical motor, the potential of this new device seemed to be superior to the one of a steam en- gine. Consequently, Joule’s aim seemed to have been the construction of an economical electro- magnetic engine. This can be derived by the fol- lowing: "I can hardly doubt that electro- magnetism will ultimately be substituted for steam to propel machinery. ... the economy (of an en- gine) will be in direct ratio of the quantity of elec- tricity, and the costs of working the engine may be reduced ad infinitum" (Joule 1884, p. 14). This idea of an ‘economical perpetuum mobile’ is not just found in Joule’s writings, but many scholars of this time held this opinion. 4 Joule finally came 3 On the early history of electrical motors see in particular Schiffer (2008). 4 This is not to be confused with a scientific perpetuum mo- bile as it has been done e.g. by Breger: “Obviously Joule has no principal objection to a perpetuum mobile at this time; Fig. 6: Rumford’s heat radiator, Thompson 1804. Background for stories concerning energy 5 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu to the conclusion (like other scholars) that the zinc that reacts in the galvanic element is more expen- sive than the fuel for a steam engine which is sup- posed to carry out the same work like the electri- cal motor. During the following years, the subject of Joule's research was the production heat either by voltaic electricity, in batteries or in chemical com- bustion; these investigations were quantitative. After completing this research, Joule turned to a new topic: in 1843, on the occasion of the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Joule presented a paper° which initiated his later prestige. He described the new subject of his investigations in announcing that "having proved that heat is generated by the magneto- electrical machine, and that by means of the in- ductive power of magnetism we can diminish or increase at pleasure the heat due to chemical changes, it became an object of great interest to inquire whether a constant ratio existed between it and the rnechanical power gained or lost" (Joule 1884, p. 149). Joule performed new experiments to demonstrate the existence of a mechanical equivalent of heat and to determine its numerical value. From a first series of experiments he deter- mined the coefficient as 838 ftlb/BTU, in a second series published in the same article he gave 770 ftlb/BTU. Looking at the data Joule published gives some insight into Joule's theoretical background. The equivalents he calculated with the data in his pa- per were (in ftlb/BTU): 896; 1001; 1040; 910; 1026; 587; 742 (mean of five experiments); 860 (mean of two experiments); 770. The two bold data derive from experiments "conducted in pre- cisely the same manner" (Joule 1884, p. 153). It seems to be daring to take these data as a proof for the existence of any equivalent, in other words, Joule had to believe in the existence of a mechani- cal equivalent of heat in order to formulate this result from his data. The data could also be inter- preted as an indication that the amount of heat produced from the same mechanical work may differ significantly, depending on some unknown or at least unclear parameter. However, Joule came to the formulation that there is a mechanical equivalent of heat, and that the deviation of the data are caused by the reading limitations in his experiments: "I admit that there is a considerable difference between some of the results, but not, I think, greater than may be referred with propriety obviously he thinks that an inexhaustible source of power is practicable"(Breger 1982, p.194). to mere errors of experiment" (Joule 1884, p. 156). Although Joule realized the difference between his data, he claimed to have proved the existence of a mechanical equivalent of heat. Therefore, it seems to be plausible that he came not to believe in the existence of the equivalent from his experi- mental data but for other reasons. Towards the end of his research on this topic, Joule himself gave an insight into these reasons declaring that he was "satisfied that the great agents of nature are, by the Creator's fiat, indestructible; and whatever me- chanical force is expended, an exact equivalent of heat is always obtained" (Joule 1884, p. 158). This statement gives an imagination of the theoretical background Joule had in mind when trying to determine the mechanical equivalent of heat. For Joule it was not compatible with his view of na- ture that anything could be destroyed or created. He had embodied the idea of conservation in a way that made it impossible to accept any excep- tions of this principle. But there seemed to be several exceptions as, for example, the generation of heat by the magneto-electrical machine. There- fore, it was necessary for Joule to develop a new idea, the idea of equivalent transformation of what he called great agents of nature. This idea, the equivalent convertibility, is the great conceptual step that was necessary to come from the principle of conservation of heat (as caloric) in Lavoisier's sense to the principle of energy conservation. The paper Joule presented in 1843 was not paid much attention to in the scientific world. In the following years Joule presented several papers in which he described various different experiments he made to determine the value of the mechanical equivalent of heat with higher precision. Two of these papers are noteworthy for completely differ- ent reasons. One was published in the Philosophi- cal Transactions of 1850, it was entitled "On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat". In this paper Joule described in full detail his experiments with the famous paddle-wheel. This paper did not only include the data Joule got from his experiments and the calculation of the mechanical equivalent, but also a detailed description of the experimental set-up. Additionally, Joule described his experi- ments on the friction of mercury and of cast iron. In a way, the publication of this paper in the pres- tigious Philosophical Transactions can be seen as a strong indicator of the acceptance of Joule’s work by the British scientific community. The other important paper Joule presented at the annual Meeting of the British Society. As his biographer D. Cardwell pointed out: "Joule be- lieved his paper would have passed without notice 6 Background for stories concerning energy Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu had not a young man at the back of the hall risen and asked penetrating questions that created a lively interest in the paper" (Cardwell 1989, p. 83). This young man was William Thomson, later Lord Kelvin. He was one of the first really influ- ential scientists, and he was the first interested in Joule's results. Although he did not agree with Joule's ideas at first, he became convinced and not only supported Joule's theory, but also started a successful collaboration with him. Thomson was skeptic about Joule’s experi- mental claims as he was trained in part in France where he became familiar with the work of Victor Regnault and Sadi Carnot. The latter had demon- strated that the work of a steam engine is depend- ing on the temperature difference, thus the work was not equivalent to a specific amount of heat, but depending on the temperature differences. Only when the concept of energy and energy dis- sipation (and in this respect entropy) had been developed, both Joule’s and Carnot’s findings were no longer in contradiction. In some sense, this contradiction together with the growing ac- ceptance of the energy concept triggered the de- velopment of the energy concept. Only during the collaboration Thomson became convinced that Joule’s results were correct and important, in the following he supported Joule in the scientific community. This aspect is relevant for the acceptance of Joule’s work in the British scientific community: Ignoring his findings may in part be explained by the fact that Joule was a brewery owner in Man- chester. Even though this turned out to be crucial for Joule’s experimental resources (which will be discussed later) it also caused a difficulty: Even though conceptual difficulties played a role, it was also Joule’s status that was meaningful. He was not a trained scientist but more a ‘gentlemen of science’ without a scientific CV or position. Whilst this was the standard during the 18 th and in the early 19 th century, in the middle of the century the situation had changed. Science became more and more professionalized in Britain, and part of this professionalization was the resulting limita- tion of science to professional practitioners. There were of course exceptions, most notably Michael Faraday, however, when Joule started publishing on the mechanical equivalent of heat, his social status was certainly an issue. On the other hand, William Thomson was well trained, a young pro- fessor at the University of Glasgow and, despite his age, already well-established in the scientific community. Thus, it was not just the individual Thomson who supported Joule’s work, but also the scientists with his status. Consequently, the support by Thomson contributed to the acknowl- edgment of Joule’s work. But it is not a question of social status that is interesting in Joule’s work: His experiments are equally remarkable. To give but a brief description on the experiment: Figure 7 is a perspective view of the set-up Joule gave in his paper. aa are wooden pulleys; l foot in diameter and 2 inches thick, with wooden rollers, bb, bb, 2 inches in diameter, and steel axles, cc, cc, one quarter of an inch in diameter. The pulleys were built per- fectly true and equal to one another. The axles were supported by brass friction wheels dddd, dddd, the axles of which worked in holes drilled into brass plates attached to a strong wooden table, which Joule affixed to the wall of his laboratory. The weights e, e, were suspended by string from the rollers bb, bb; and fine twine attached to the pulleys aa connected them with the central roller f, which, by means of a pin, could easily be attached Fig 7: Joule’s paddle wheel apparatus, Joule 1872 Background for stories concerning energy 7 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Figure 9: Joule’s paddle wheel, horizontal cut. Joule 1872 Figure 8: Joule’s paddle wheel, lateral cut. Joule 1872 to, or removed from, the axis of the frictional ap- paratus. This apparatus is represented in figure 8 (left) vertically and in figure 8 (right) horizontally. It consisted of a brass paddle-wheel furnished of 8 sets of 4 revolving arms each and 4 sets of 4 sta- tionary vanes each. The brass axis worked freely and was divided at d into two parts to avoid any conduction of heat in that direction. The paddle wheel firmly fitted into a copper vessel with two holes in the lid, one for the insertion of the axis, and one for the insertion of a thermometer. During the experiment a large wooden screen was at- tached to the table to avoid all effects of heat radi- ation from the experimenter. At the beginning of the experiment, the vessel is filled with water, and it needs about 6 l of water to fill this vessel. When everything is in thermal equilibrium, the temperature of the water as well as the one of the room is measured, and the ther- mometer is removed from the vessel. Then the weights of a total of 26 kg are wound up for about a meter and then go down, driving a paddle-wheel that is stirring the water. This procedure is repeat- ed twenty times, and it takes some 35 minutes to realize these 20 runs. In the end, according to Joule’s data, an increase of the water temperature of approximately 0.5°C can be measured. Analyzing this experiment reveals some details that are noteworthy and which show that Joule was in an extraordinary situation: Joule was able to employ some of the most skilled craftsmen who were at hand in an industrial town such as Man- chester. The instrument maker – John Benjamin Dancer – was extremely versed and particularly able to create extremely sensitive thermometers. Their sensitivity was extraordinary: "The two thermometers he (Joule) had acquired in 1844 were, he claimed the first accurately-calibrated thermometers in Britain … ." (Cardwell 1989, p. 234) The thermometer which was used to deter- mine the temperature of the water had a length of 87 cm and had a range from freezing point to about 85°F (see Ashworth 1930). Joule wrote that "constant practice had enabled me to read off with the naked eye to 1/20 of a division it followed that 1/200 of a degree Fahr, was an appreciable tem- perature" (Joule 1884, p. 303). At such a degree of sensitivity, water is far from being at a constant temperature. Consequently, the procedure of de- termining this temperature is far from being easy. Instead of waiting until the mercury column of the thermometer comes to rest and then read the tem- perature, Joule had to find other means to deter- mine when the thermometer and the water were in thermal equilibrium. As Sibum demonstrated, measuring temperatures was part of the brewer’s culture, thus Joule had the respective competence to carry out the measurement from his profession- al background. There are other aspects which indicate that this experiment was embedded in the brewers’ culture: Joule used a copper vessel without any insulation, even though the room should not affect the ther- mal condition of the water in any way. This may 8 Background for stories concerning energy Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu seem a bit unusual, particularly when one takes into consideration that Joule actually used a wooden shield to protect the vessel from the radia- tion of the body of the experimenter. However, the copper vessel is a device commonly used in beer brewing, thus Joule was very versed in controlling the thermal situation in such a vessel – an insulat- ed one (which could not be perfectly insulated) was not familiar as a system to Joule. But there are also material aspects in the Man- chester brewery that enabled Joule to carry out his experiment successfully. On the other hand Joule needed a room with a huge heat capacity – other- wise the heat produced by the human body in winding up the weights would affect the room temperature and thus the experimental result sig- nificantly. Such a room exists in a brewery: the cellar in which the beer is stored. This has a huge heat capacity and thus an almost uniform tempera- ture, thus it was a room with the physical proper- ties that were necessary for the production of reli- able data. On the other hand, Joule could use a brewing mate to do the work of winding up the weights. This required certain skills as the weight is heavy, and one has to be fast and controlled at the same time to do this work. Joule himself was not in the physical position of doing this work, moreover, he was a gentleman, and doing such a work would not correspond to his social status. 5 Starting research on renewable energy In mid-nineteenth century, industrialization progressed at high speed. One of the side effects was the necessity to have fuel for the seam en- gines that were the central power source in the factories. To France, this started to pose a major problem, as the coal deposits turned out to be lim- ited and were almost exhausted. This was even more a problem as the potential imports could only come from England – the traditional (eco- nomic) rival to France. Consequently, the French government promised financial support to any researcher who proposes promising concepts of how to avoid a dependency of France from Eng- lish coal. This was the moment when the French second- ary school teacher Augustin Mouchot entered the stage. Mouchot combined two devices that had been known previously: A blackened hollow cyl- inder containing water – a similar device had been used by the end of the eighteenth century by Hor- ace Benedict de Saussure for making experiments 5 Similarly, Joule did not mention the person doing the physi- cal work in the experiments he carried out afterwards which led to what is nowadays known as the Joule-Thomson-Effect (see Sichau 2000). on heat radiation. This was combined with a hol- low mirror that was used to focus solar radiation on the cylinder. Already in 1861, Mouchot was able to produce steam with his device. In the fol- lowing years, he intended to improve his set-up to make it more useful for technical purposes. The attempts were financially supported by the French government. Two outcomes can be named as direct results: On the one hand, Mouchot was able to develop solar cooking devices, items that were used in particular by the French army in their North Afri- can colonies. These devices enabled the soldiers to prepare hot meals without producing smoke, a detail relevant from a military perspective. These cookers were used until the 20 th century. The other result of Mouchot’s attempts was a steam engine that was operated with steam pro- duced by his solar apparatus. Mouchot devised several of the engines, the largest was shown at the world exhibition in Paris in 1878. The conical mirror had a diameter of some five meters, and the engine could be used as a printing device, but was also able to produce ice. Mouchot was awarded a gold medal for this ma- chine. Yet, by this time, things had changed once again. A major problem of Mouchot’s machine remained the mirror which was made with a silver coating – this tended to oxidize, thus reducing the efficiency of the machine and requiring a constant cleaning of the mirror. However, another devel- opment turned out to be far more problematic for Mouchot: Miners had found new coal deposits in Eastern France, consequently, the necessity for finding an alternative source of energy for the steam engine did not exist any longer. Moreover, in a report Mouchot’s machine was labeled as economic inefficient. As a result, the French gov- Figure 10: Mouchot’s apparatus at the Paris World Fair, http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/M ouchot1878x.jpg Background for stories concerning energy 9 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu ernment ceased to support Mouchot’s research financially; this brought his work to an end. References Ashworth JR (1930): Joule's Thermometers in the Possession of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society (Journal of Scientific Instruments Vol 7, No. 11, London) pp 361 - 363. Ashworth JR (1931): A List of Apparatus now in Manchester which belonged to Dr. J.P. Joule, F.R.S., with Remarks on his M.S.S., Letters, and Autobiography. In: Manchester Memoirs Vol 75, No 8, 105. Beretta M. H. (2005). Lavoisier in Perspective. München, Deutsches Museum. Breger H (1982). Die Natur als arbeitende Maschine. Brown SC (1979): Benjamin Thomson, Count Rumford (MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., London). Goldfarb SG (1977) Rumford's Theory of Heat: A Reassess- ment. In: British Journal for the History of Science Band 10:S. 25 - 36. Heering P (1992) On J.P. Joule's Determination of the Me- chanical Equivalent of Heat. In: Hills, Skip (Ed.): The His- tory and Philosophy of Science in Science Education Vol.1, Kingston, Ontario), pp 495-505. Herschel, W. (1800). Experiments on the Refrangibility of the invisible Rays of the Sun. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 90, 284-292. Joule JP (1850): On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 140, 61-82. Reprinted in Joule JP (1884): The Scientific Papers. Joule, JP (1872). Das mechanische Wärmeäquivalent. Braun- schweig, Vieweg. Kuhn, TS (1959): Energy conservation as an example of simultaneous discovery. In: M. Clagett (ed.): Critical Prob- lems in the History of Science. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 321 - 356. Leslie, J. (1804): An experimental inquiry into the nature and propagation of heat. London, Printed for J. Mawman. Mouchot, Augustin (1869), La chaleur solaire et ses applica- tions industrielles. Paris. Olson RG (1970) Count Rumford, Sir John Leslie, and the Study of the Nature and Propagation of Heat at the Begin- ning of the Nineteenth Century. In: Annals of Science Band 26: 273 - 304. Roberts L. (1991). A Word and the World: ¬The Significance of Naming the Calorimeter. ISIS 82: 198 - 222. Schiffer MB (2008): Power struggles: scientific authority and the creation of practical electricity before Edison. Cam- bridge, Mass., The MIT Press. Sibum HO (1995): Reworking the Mechanical Value of Heat: Instruments of Precision and Gestures of Accuracy in Early Victorian England. Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science 26, 73 - 106. Sichau C (2000): Die Joule-Thomson-Experimente: An- merkungen zur Materialität eines Experiments. In: NTM 8:223-243. Smith C & Wise MN (1989): Energy and Empire: ¬A bio- graphical study of Lord Kelvin (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge - New York - Port Chester - Melbourne – Sydney Thompson, B (1781): New Experiments upon Gun-Powder, with Occasional Observations and Practical Inferences; To Which are Added, an Account of a New Method of Deter- mining the Velocities of All Kinds of Military Projectiles, and the Description of a Very Accurate Eprouvette for Gun-Powder. In: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 71, 229-328 Thompson, B. (1798). "An Inquiry concerning the Source of the Heat Which is Excited by Friction. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 88: 80-102. Thompson, B (1804): An Enquiry concerning the Nature of Heat, and the Mode of Its Communication. In: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 94, 77-182. Background for stories concerning energy was written by Peter Heering with the support the European Commission (project 518094-LLP-1-2011-1-GR-COMENIUS-CMP) and Flensburg University, Germany. This publication reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the infor- mation contained therein. Biography_Mouchot_ENG.pdf Biography: Augustin Bernard Mouchot 1 Storytelling Teaching Model: wiki.science-stories.org Biography: Augustin Bernard Mouchot (1825-1912) Important things that we know today about solar energy are connected with one of the inventors of a 19th century Augustin Mouchot, his life and occupational ca- reer. He was French engineer, mathematician and physicist. He was a man of enormous imagination. Mouchot was drawn to the idea of finding alternative en- ergy sources, believing that the coal fuel would eventually run out. Thus, he un- dertook research on solar energy. He was an inventor of the earliest solar powered engine, converting solar energy into mechanical stem power. Solar cooking was his another field of investigations. Exploring solar cooking he used works of Hor- ace-Benedict de Saussure and Claude Pouillet. Mouchot also demonstrated prin- ciple of ice blocks production using a solar-driven adsorption chiller. Then he developed the first parabolic solar collector and made a few interesting public demonstrations of his inventions in Paris. Even Emperor Napolen III was im- pressed by Mouchot , s device presentation. His scientific achievements were amused. We can call him the pioneer in the field of solar energy. "One must not believe, despite the silence of modern writings, that the idea of using solar heat for me- chanical operations is recent. On the contrary, one must recognize that this idea is very ancient and its slow development across the centuries it has given birth to various curious devices." - Augustin Bernard Mouchot, at the Universal Ex position, Paris, France (1878). Augustin Mouchot predicted a need for solar en- ergy. "Eventually industry will no longer find in Europe the resources to satisfy its prodigious expan- sion... Coal will undoubtedly be used up. What will industry do then?" - Augustin Bernard Mouchot, after demonstrat- ing an early industrial application of solar thermal en- ergy (1880). Augustin Bernard Mouchot was born in France on 7 April 1825. Town where he was born Semur- en-Auxois is located within Burgund’s region. At first he was a teacher at the primary schools of Morvan (1845–1849) and then taught at Dijon. In 1852 he attained a degree in Mathematics and a Bachelor of Physical Sciences in 1853. Later Mou- chot was a mathematics teacher in secondary schools of Alençon in years (1853–1862), Rennes and Lycée de Tours in years (1864–1871). In this period of time the French teacher – Augustin Mouchot started to undertake research on solar energy. The idea of finding new alterna- tive energy sources overwhelmed him. In 1860 he began exploring solar cooking, based on the work of Horace-Bénédict de Saussure and Claude Pouil- let. Horace de Saussure was a French - Swiss scien- tist and started his work of solar cooking in 1767 building a miniature greenhouse ,in which he placed a pieces of fruits. This new technology called solar cooking. Horace continued his exper- iments with other materials as insulators an tried cooking at different altitudes. Claude Servais Ma- thias Pouille was a French physicist.. Between 1837 and 1838, independently of John Frederick Wil- liam Herschel (1792-1871), he made the first quantitative measurements of the heat emitted by the Sun. In 1866 Augustine Mouchot had developed the first parabolic solar collector. He designed a new collector, which concentrated the rays of sunlight from all sides of absorber. He experimented with a water-filed container enclosed in glass, which was exposed to the heat of sun until the water boiled. The steam that was produced provided power for a small steam engine. That was a great achievement. This device was presented in Paris in August 1866 to the Emperor Napoleon III, and the inventor was founded for a more ambitious phase of building. 2 Biography: Augustin Bernard Mouchot Storytelling Teaching Model: wiki.science-stories.org It is worth to mention, that in this time a very high speed progress of industrialization in France and other countries was noticed. Many factories used steam engines. It was necessary to have sources of fuel for steam engines. In France a big problem with coal appeared. The source of this fuel was almost exhausted. Moreover, France had to import a coal from England. Coal was expen- sive. French government promised to support fi- nancially all researches, which could create possi- bility to be independent on coal imported from England. That was a good moment to find alterna- tive energy to develop and use the solar energy. Thus, the consecutive years gave Mouchot possi- bility to improve his inventions of solar systems. Over the next few years, Mouchot built lager and lager machines One of his most successful inventions was presented at the Great Exhibition of the most modern technologies from around the world in 1867. Many attendees were amazed at this invention. A huge crowd gathered at Mou- chot’s “solar engine” device. It had a huge light – capturing apparatus that could generate enough steam to power a small engine. In his book “The Power of Light: The Epic story of Man’s Quest to Harness the Sun Frank Kryza said on the device: “When Mouchot put it on the display, the reaction was one of stupefied amazement – a motor that ran without fuel, on nothing more than sunbeams! It struck observers as bizarre – even magical.” Mouhout won a first place medal at this exhibi- tion and could continue his work on the devel- opments. In 1869 he poured himself into writing the first book ever devoted to solar energy: La Chaleur so- laire et ses Applications industrielles and at the same time he displayed in Paris the largest solar steam engine he had yet built. But Paris was at that time under siege during the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, however, the monster engine was not found after the siege ended. In September 1871, Mouchot received financial assistance from the General Council of Indre -et- Loire to install an experimental solar generator at the Tours library. In December 1875 he presented to the Academy of Sciences a device, which he claimed would provide a steam flow of 140 liters per minute in optimal sunshine. He got the per- mission from the ministry to leave his teaching position in order to develop work on an engine for the Universal Exhibition of 1878. He had im- portant mission to execute solar engines in French Algeria. He got a grant for the purchase of mate- rials and execution of solar engines and was rec- ommended to the Governor of Algeria. Augustin Mouchot from 1860 to 1878 built dif- ferent mirrors and use them to cooking food, boiling water, pumping water and even producing brandy. At first Mouchot solar device was able to bring three liters of water to boil in one and a half hours. Muochot invented the conical mirror and implemented in cooker in 1870’s. Parabolic mirror concentrate the reflected rays of sun light to a point and cone concentrate light to a line. Mou- chot found out that cone mirror can be quite enough good to boil water for tea or produce steam for engines. Construction of cooker with the conical mirrors was much more easy. First solar pump was build in 1861 and in 1874 Muochot used a solar energy for pumping water in Algeria. Mouchot’s solar devices were used by the French soldiers in North Africa. In this way they were preparing meals without a smoke. A few solar system were build and used to power stem engines. On September 1878 at the World Exhibition in Paris Mouchot presented the biggest one. The mirror concentrating solar ener- gy had diameter of five meters. All device could produced an ice blocks, using solar energy and machine of Edmund Carre*. This big mirror has one disadvantage. It was made of silver and oxi- dized and had to be often clean. Muochot was awarded a gold medal for presentation of this ex- periment. Furthermore, in 1880, Mouchot’s assistant Abel Pifre –a French engineer presented a solar- powered printing press. Sunlight from parabolic mirror heated up water in small boiler and pro- duced steam for steam engine, which drove print- ing machine. Abel Pifre was able to print 500 cop- ies per hour of his newspaper “Soleil-Journal”. However, The political and economical situa- tions in France have changed. The economy in France was improving. The Cobden-Chevalier Treaty** between France and the United Kingdom Biography: Augustin Bernard Mouchot 3 Storytelling Teaching Model: wiki.science-stories.org © 2012, S@TM Research Group caused that coal became cheaper. It was a very im- portant commitment for France in time when sources of coal were exhausted. Later French min- ers have found new coal deposits in Eastern France. Due to this fact the government was not more interested in supporting financially researches on alternative energy. Additionally, French govern- ment assessed that solar energy was not enough economical. Mouchot studies become less im- portant as before. He hasn’t got more financial support. His activity concerned with the investiga- tions and implementations of solar energy in prac- tice stopped. Mouchot went back to the teaching profession. Imagination and inventions of Mouchot were appreciated by the Institute of France. He received twice prizes in 1891 and in 1892 and he was named Lauréat de l'Institut by the Institut de France. Augustin Bernard Mouchot died in Paris.1912. * The first absorption machine was developed by Edmond Carre in 1850, using water and sulfuric acid. ** The Cobden–Chevalier Treaty was a Free Trade treaty signed between the United Kingdom and France, on January 23,1860. It was named after the main British and French originators of the treaty, Richard Cobden Member of Parliament and Michel Chevalier. References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin_Mouchot Gordon, Jeffrey, Solar energy, International Solar Energy So- ciety, ISBN 9781902916231 http://en.vionto.com/show/me/Augustin+Mouchot http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_thermal_energy Biography: Augustin Bernard Mouchot was edited by Ste- phen Klassen and Cathrine Froese Klassen and is based, in part on Historical Backgrounds: Energy and Solar cooker according to Augustin Mouchot written by Peter Heering. Biography: Augustin Bernard Mouchot was written by Emi- lia Dobrowolska with the support of the European Commis- sion (project 518094-LLP-1-2011-1-GR-COMENIUS-CMP) and Polish Association of Science Teachers, Poland. This publication reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein. EN_Guidelines_Mouchot.pdf Suggestions to Teachers (Mouchot and the solar cooker) 1 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Suggestions to Teachers (Mouchot and the solar cooker) Expected results After the lesson, the students are expected to: 1. Describe the device, which was constructed by Mouchot, in order to meet his personal everyday needs. 2. Construct an experimental device, which is a simulation of the Mouchot’s solar oven, in order to experiment with it and interpret its function. 3. Locate the principles of operation : a) Mouchot’s solar oven and solar steam engine b) the solar ovens and solar steam engines of the current technology. 4. Write the prevailing reasons for Mouchot’s scientific research which call for the exploitation of solar energy of this time and today. 5. Construct solar ovens and to organize an exhibition with their constructions. 6. Demonstrate that Mouchot's research provided a solution to a social problem at his time and generally, the social needs indicate and sometimes define the field of the scientific inquiry. 7. Describe the device, which was constructed by Mouchot and won the first award in the exhibition of Paris, and identify its innovation, based on the narration. 8. State the reasons indicating the necessity of the exploitation both of the solar energy and the renewable resources nowadays. 9. Distinguish the conventional from the renewable resources of energy. 10. Investigate the science characteristics and the ways science develops in the Mouchot’s story as well as the activities of the lesson, according to the McComas’ list. 11. Demonstrate the relation between the science, the society, the economy and generally the politics. 12. Demonstrate: a) that science progresses through research, but its progress could decelerate or stop by various obstacles b) the diachronism between the social demands and the correlating scientific questions. About the activities of students The proposed students' activities are indicative and they aim at the accomplishment of the above expected outcomes. Moreover, the teacher may choose some of them for the teaching process in relation to its aims, the needs of students and the available time. Finally, she/he can create her/his own activities. About the emergence of the characteristics of science in the narration, these characteristics are quoted in the website, comprehensively (in classification of the stories by NOS). 2 Suggestions to Teachers (Mouchot and the solar cooker) Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu About the locating of the characteristics of Nature of Science in the proposed activities, indicatively, we can quote the following: A) In activity 1 the cases 1, 2 and 5 concern the characteristic of Nature of Science: “There are historical, cultural, and social influences on science”, but case 4 concerns the characteristic: “Science is a highly creative endeavor”. B) The activity 2 concerns the characteristics of Nature of Science: a) “Science and technology impact each other, but they are not the same” and b) “Scientific knowledge is tentative but durable”. C) The activity 3 concerns the characteristic of Nature of Science: “Science and technology impact each other, but they are not the same”. D)The activity 4, case 2 concerns the characteristic of Nature of Science: “Scientific knowledge is tentative but durable”. E) The activity 5 concerns the characteristics which are quoted in the previous activities: 2, 3, 4 and the next activity. G) The activity 6 concerns mainly the characteristics: a)“Science and technology impact each other, but they are not the same”, b) “Science demands and relies on empirical evidence” and c) “Science is a highly creative endeavor”. Suggestions to Teachers (Mouchot and the solar cooker) were written by Aikaterini Rizaki and Panagiotis Kokkotas with the support by the European Commission (Project 518094-LLP-1-2011-1-GR-COMENIUS-CMP) and the NKUA of Greece. This publication reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained there in. EN_LA_Mouchot.pdf Student’s Learning Activities (Mouchot and solar cooker) 1 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Student’s Learning Activities (Mouchot and solar cooker) Activity 1 You will watch a video with narration or listen to a story from your teacher about Augustin Mouchot and his work on the development of the solar ovens and the solar steam engines. Please write down the main points of the story, in your view, and discuss about them in your group. (Indicative important points of the story: the description of Mouchot’s device for the exploitation of solar energy in order to solve his everyday needs for warm water, the description of Mouchot’s solar steam engine for which he won the first prize in the 1878 Paris exhibition, the reasons that the French Government firstly started financing and then stopped financing the research of Mouchot, the way of Mouchot’s life, his end , ...) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………. 1. Based on the story you heard from the narrator please record two reasons that led Mouchot to search for devices utilizing solar energy. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 2. Please discuss in your group the reasons for which the French Government firstly started financing and then stopped financing the research of Mouchot. Please write one reason for each case. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2 Student’s Learning Activities (Mouchot and solar cooker) Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………... 3.Please describe the device was built from Mouchot in order to solve his everyday needs for warm water. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………… 4. Please describe the device built from Mouchot for which he won the first prize in the 1878 Paris exhibition. You have at your disposal the image from the following website from which you can get more information: http://landartgenerator.org/blagi/archives/2004 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… http://landartgenerator.org/blagi/archives/2004 Student’s Learning Activities (Mouchot and solar cooker) 3 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5. Pease discuss in your group about the advancement of science and the social, cultural and economic circumstances that prevail at that time. Please write down the view of your group. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Activity 2 In this activity you are invited to experiment on the absorption of solar radiation. Let us try, to implement an experiment similar to that Mouchot implemented in his research. Because we are indoors, instead of solar radiation we will use the radiation of an electric bulb. Materials: • A heat sensor with a glass cover and a digital thermometer or, if there is not any, we can use a metallic thermometer. • A radiation collector in the form of concave mirror made of aluminum. •An electric bulb. Experimental procedure: a) Please place the tip of the thermometer at the focus of the concave mirror. b) Place the electric bulb at 20 cm distance from the tip of the thermometer. c) Set the electric bulb to radiate for 10 minutes. d) Record temperature changes in Table 1. Table 1 Take the temperature every 2 minutes 4 Student’s Learning Activities (Mouchot and solar cooker) Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Time (min) Temperature (in ° C) 0 2 4 6 8 10 1.Please explain: a. the raise of the temperature at the focal point. b. the placement of the tip of the thermometer at the focal point of the concave mirror. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………..…………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………….. 2. Make a graph: temperature against time and from that find the raise of the temperature for the time interval 6th min 8th min. 3. Based on the images below (these are solar ovens of modern technology) Student’s Learning Activities (Mouchot and solar cooker) 5 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu describe a solar oven modern technology: ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... .............................................................................................................................................................. ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... .............................................................................................................................................................. ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... .............................................................................................................................................................. ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... .............................................................................................................................................................. 4. Please discuss in your group the principles of operation of a solar oven of modern technology and write the missing words below: a) ............................ light b)the absorption of light in ............... body c) the effect of ....................... 6 Student’s Learning Activities (Mouchot and solar cooker) Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu 5. In the diagram below draw the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection. This will enable you to explain the principles of operation of the solar oven. Activity 3 The experimentations so far will help you understand the operation of Mouchot’s steam engine. 1. Please watch the video in the following link for solar steam engine: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jTvAL7ty53M&feature=player_embedded#at=23 Based on your observations please compare the operating principles of solar steam engine with those of solar ovens. Write the further principles of function for the solar ovens and the solar steam engines. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………. Activity 4 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jTvAL7ty53M&feature=player_embedded#at=23 Student’s Learning Activities (Mouchot and solar cooker) 7 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu 1. Please discuss in your group the difference between a renewable source of energy and a conventional one and indicate two sources of energy from each category. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2.Please argue in your group about the reasons for which the future of our society depends on the renewable energy sources and not on the conventional ones. Please write a text of 1000 characters to support this statement referring to three such reasons. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… Activity 5 Using the list of ideas that describe the characteristics of science and the ways it develops, try to locate and write these ideas in the story you heard and the activities of lesson. These ideas that scientists call Nature of Science (Nature Of Science-NOS- ) are: Characteristics of Nature of Science (NOS) 1. Science demands and relies on empirical evidence 2. Knowledge production in science includes many common features and shared habits of mind. 3. Scientific knowledge is tentative but durable. 8 Student’s Learning Activities (Mouchot and solar cooker) Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu 4. Laws and theories are related but distinct kinds of scientific knowledge. 5. Science is a highly creative endeavor. 6. Science has a subjective element. 7. There are historical, cultural, and social influences on science. 8. Science and technology impact each other, but they are not the same. 9. Science and its methods cannot answer all questions. Scientists argue that in order to learn science one must first understand what exactly science is. Because it is difficult to define science, scientists give a list of its characteristics. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………… Activity 6 Constructing solar ovens using the project approach. A) The Students of the class form groups, following criteria on which they have agreed upon in advance. In order to construct solar ovens using different patterns and simple materials, they collect information from different sources, such as, photos, texts, newspapers, websites, etc. The solar ovens will be used for their families’ summer camping holidays. B) They look for ways to compare measure of efficiency of their constructions (e.g. use thermometers to measure the temperature inside the ovens, to measure the time needed to heat of a certain quantity of water to a certain temperature, melting a block of ice, etc.). C) A time period of 5-6 weeks is necessary for the implementation of the project. D) Students argue about the differences of efficiency of their solar ovens. An organization of an exhibition with the solar ovens will be a very good motivation event. Student’s Learning Activities (Mouchot and solar cooker) 9 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Student’s Learning Activities (Mouchot and solar cooker) were written by Aikaterini Rizaki, Panagiotis Kokkotas and Ioannis Vlachos with the support by the European Commission (Project 518094-LLP-1-2011-1-GR-COMENIUS-CMP) and the NKUA of Greece. This publication reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained there in. Historical Ressources).pdf Historical Resources • Primary literature Mouchot, Augustin Bernard: La Chaleur solaire et ses applications industrielles 1869, available online: http://archive.org/details/lachaleursolair00moucgoog. Mouchot, Augustin: Die Sonnenwärme und ihre industriellen Anwendungen, Oberbözberg, Schweiz 1987. Pope, Charles Henry: Solar Heat, its Practical Applications, 1903, online available: http://archive.org/details/solarheatitspra00popegoog. (enthält eine Übersetzung des Inhaltsverzeichnisses von Mouchots Hauptwerk : Le Chaleur [...]) Simonin, Louis Laurent: Industrial Applications of Solar Heat, [via wikisource], in: Popular Science Monthly 9, Ausgabe September (1876), S. 550–560, available online: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly/Volume_9/September.... • Secondary literature Bradford, Travis: Solar Revolution: The Economic Transformation of the Global Energy Industry, Cambridge, Mass. u.a. 2006. Kryza, Frank T.: The Power of Light: The Epic Story of One Man’s Quest to Harness the Sun, New York, N.Y 2003. links.pdf http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sKUDAS884VQ& Story_Mouchot_ENG.pdf The Soul of Solar Energy: Augustin Mouchot 1 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu The Soul of Solar Energy: Augustin Mouchot It was a typical, cold January morning in Alençon, France. The year was 1860. High school mathemat- ics teacher, Augustin Mouchot shivered as he reluctantly rolled out of bed. The thought of having to stoke the stove and heat the water for his morning washing routine did not thrill him. Besides, he needed to conserve the coal, which was growing scarce in his homeland and becoming expensive these days. As Augustin arose in the chill of the dawn, his thoughts drifted to what he had just been reading about the energy of the sun. Physicist Claude Pouillet had written that every square meter of the Earth’s surface receives about 10 Calories of energy every minute. Augustin chuckled, “Not a very use- ful fact on a cloudy day like today!” Then, a flash of inspiration crossed his mind: “It’s not cloudy every day. Wouldn’t it be possible to heat enough water with the sun’s light and spare the fire that is only meant to heat the house?” While he made the last preparations to teach his geometry class, he could not get his mind off the energy issue. The thought kept coming back to him, “The issue of energy is bigger than the needs of my household—I should try to do something about it.” Over the next few months, Augustin immersed himself in his new project of building a solar en- ergy collector despite having to teach his regular classes. He reviewed what he had already learned about harnessing the energy of the sun. Reasoning that copper is a good conductor of heat and a black surface is a good absorber of heat, he would have to contain the water in a copper vessel that was painted black. The water would then obtain its heat from the copper. To prevent the heat from escaping out the back, he thought it better to mount the unit on a bad conductor of heat, and to prevent the heat from escaping out the front, he would cover it with glass to trap the heat that was absorbed inside. “What a great idea!” he thought. “But, in order to get more heat, I would have to make a bigger absorber—not very practical…. On the other hand, what if I put a mirror on the out- side to reflect more of the sun’s rays onto the ab- sorber? That way I could make the device smaller.” Soon, Augustin had completed the construc- tion of his first solar water heater, which was ca- pable of holding three litres of water. Lucky for him, it happened to be a cloudless day! Excitedly, he placed the boiler and mirror in the direct sunlight. To his amazement, the water, which he had initially measured to be 15 degrees, boiled in just an hour and a half. From then on—on sunny days—Augustin saved himself the bother and the expense of coal-heated water when he bathed. With further improvements to the solar heat- ers, Augustin was able to bring water to a boil more quickly. He began to ponder new and bigger possibilities. “Perhaps, I could design solar steam generators to power machines, like the steam en- gines used in industry,” he thought. Coal was the main fuel for industry, but France was already ex- periencing a shortage of this expensive resource. “When the supply of coal eventually runs out,” he reasoned, “then using the energy of the sun might be our only available alternative.” Augustin thought that his idea of a solar-powered engine could contribute to the well-being and progress of the entire nation. Harnessing the sun’s energy became a fascina- tion and all-consuming preoccupation for Au- gustin. “We need to heat so many things in every- day life—water, home, food…. Why, of course, food!” So, the mathematics teacher turned cook prepared a delicious stew for dinner and cooked it in his solar heater. The solar heater had become a solar cooker. Over the next several years, Augustin contin- ued to work on his solar energy idea, employing his natural creativity and his university training in physics and mathematics. He especially wanted to develop a solar engine that could drive all kinds of mechanical devices used in industry and agricul- ture. By 1866, he was ready to launch his idea in the public domain. Political support would be ad- vantageous at this strategic moment. His connec- tion with Jean-Baptiste Verchère de Reffye, Ord- nance Officer of the Imperial Workshop at Meu- don, who had influence with the Emperor, proved 2 The Soul of Solar Energy: Augustin Mouchot Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu useful. De Reffye persuaded Napoleon III to at- tend a demonstration of Augustin’s new solar en- gine. The Emperor was so impressed with the in- vention that he immediately granted Augustin the full assistance of the Imperial Workshop. With this level of technical assistance, the inventor could forge ahead. By the next year, Augustin had perfected a so- lar engine capable of driving an Archimedean screw that could be used to pump water for irriga- tion. In its design, he found that the main consid- erations were the geometrical arrangement of the heat absorber and the mirror. The best shape for the mirror was an open-ended cone, with the cu- rious mathematical name of “frustocone,” that focused the sun’s rays along a line on its axis where a narrow cylindrical heat absorber, which contained the steam generator, was located. The device was installed in Paris, and at that occasion, Augustin remarked, “The problem of the steam- driven solar machine has been completely solved. We should judge from this result that the engine would best be used in tropical regions, where we should go to test the device in practical situations.” A logical testing location for Augustin was Al- geria, a French colony in the tropics, conquered in 1830. Of course, he still had to continue in his teaching position, which entailed restrictions of time and finances. Augustin quickly realized that in order to be able to reach his goals, he would need to obtain major government funding and leave from his teaching duties. Just when he was poised to take his final, strategic steps to obtain funding, war broke out between France and Ger- many. It was 1870. The war was fast and furious, and, by the next year, France had been defeated, Napoleon III had been sent into exile, and a new government was formed—the French Third Re- public. Many of the arrangements that Augustin had had in place vanished, the notable solar ma- chine that he had set up in Paris was nowhere to be found, and the technical support from the Im- perial Workshop was suspended. It was a monu- mental setback for Augustin, but he was not dis- couraged. From 1871, then, Augustin set out to lay the groundwork for his solar dreams in other ways: by writing about his work and applying for patents. Astonishingly, while still being a full-time mathe- matics teacher, he managed to complete a 233- page volume, which he entitled Solar Energy and its Industrial Applications. The book advertised his dream of, in his words, “finding a convenient way to collect and use sunlight directly for the benefit of agriculture and industry in the hottest regions of the world.” In order to establish the importance of his ideas, he was able to register three patents for his designs, and by 1876, he had achieved suf- ficient fame with his work that the government awarded him a silver medal. Most importantly, though, that year Augustin was granted leave with pay from his teaching position by the government so that he could devote all of his time to his work on solar energy in the tropics. His dream would come true at last! In the very next year, Augustin Mouchot set sail for Algeria—financed by a huge government grant of 10,000 francs. In Algeria, he invented and tested many ver- sions of his solar energy devices for many different useful purposes. Perfecting his solar cooker proved strategic for the military, which could bet- ter conceal their positions as they prepared their food in smoke-free heaters. His report on his in- ventions to the government impressed the General Council so much that Augustin was granted 5,000 francs to design and build the largest solar collec- tor ever to be built. It was to be exhibited at the Paris World Fair of 1878. For the difficult task of building the giant solar collector, Augustin placed a talented, young engi- neer, Abel Pifre, in charge. Although the World Fair took place between May 1 and October 31, the mirror was completed only by the second of September. At that time, the collector was able to bring 70 litres of water to a boil in half an hour and generate steam pressure of six atmospheres. Augustin and Abel used the steam generator to drive an ice-making machine, using the hot sun’s rays to produce a block of ice. The people at the fair marvelled at the phenomenon—producing ice from heat! The jury of the Fair was so impressed that it awarded Augustin the gold medal in his category, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Trade, not to be outdone, named him Knight of the Legion of Honour. The Soul of Solar Energy: Augustin Mouchot 3 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Not wanting to waste the opportunity provided by the honours, Augustin applied for government funding for a new mission to Algeria immediately after the World Fair. Inexplicably, and to his dis- may, the government granted him only 5,000 francs. His disappointment at the inadequate sup- port, however, did not keep him from pursuing his mission, and he departed for Algeria, once again, to perform new experiments. Ever optimistic, he, once more, returned to France to apply for a large amount of new fund- ing. This time, his request was denied outright. What a letdown for Augustin! The government, having commissioned a study on the economic viability of solar energy, had concluded that there was no justification for further research. National and global events were fast eroding Augustin’s aspirations. More coal deposits had been discov- ered in eastern France, making coal more abun- dant and less expensive, and lessening the pressure to develop other energy sources. In the USA, oil, having been discovered in 1859, was already being harnessed as a fuel to supply energy needs. Ironi- cally, the 1878 World Fair, where Augustin had gained his international stature, marked the un- veiling of the internal combustion engine. This proved to be the final undoing of Augustin’s fad- ing solar-energy dream. Could the situation get any worse? It did. Au- gustin’s leave from teaching was to expire in the following year, but circumstances prevented him even from resuming his position, as a serious bac- terial infection, which he had contracted in Alge- ria, had left him deaf. A small consolation was that his disability allowed him to apply for a pension, which was fortunate, as he had already reached the age of 55 years. Deteriorating eyesight and meagre finances plagued his retirement. Yet, he was able to com- plete and publish an important book on geometry in 1892, for which he received a prize from the Science Academy. Thereafter, he receded from the public eye. In 1907, a member of the Science Academy discovered that Augustin was living in deep misery, and the Academy generously granted him an additional pension of 1,200 francs. One day, the lonely Augustin received a visitor. It was the military doctor Félix Pasteur from Alge- ria. The doctor told him about the use of solar wa- ter heaters in hospitals and military barracks there and expressed appreciation to him for this valu- able contribution. It was one of the last satisfying joys Augustin was to experience. On October 4, 1912, eighty-seven-year-old Augustin Mouchot, no longer capable of even picking up his pension from the post box, died penniless and alone. How the coincidental interplay of economics, politics, and history can crush humanitarian ideals and decimate noble dreams! References Kryza, F. (2003). The Power of Light: The Epic Story of Man’s Quest to Harness the Sun. New York: McGraw-Hill. Larousse Encyclopedia. Augustin-Bernard Mouchot. [http://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/article/Larousseen_- _Article/11013613#] Quinnez, B. (2011). Augustin-Bernard Mouchot (1825-1912), un missionnaire de l’énergie solaire. Assemblée Générale de Côte-d'Or de l'AMOPA, 30 mars 2011. [http://www.amopa21.fr/2011%20conference%20.htm] The Soul of Solar Energy: Augustin Mouchot was edited by Cathrine Froese Klassen with the support the European Commission (project 518094-LLP-1-2011-1-GR- COMENIUS-CMP) and The University of Winnipeg, Canada, and is based, in part, on Historical Background: The Energy Concept and Historical Background: Solar cooker according to Augustin Mouchot written by Peter Heering, and Biography: Augustin Bernard Mouchot writ- ten by Tadeusz Kubiak and Jozefina Turlo. The Soul of Solar Energy: Augustin Mouchot was written by Stephen Klassen with the support the European Commission (project 518094-LLP-1-2011-1-GR- COMENIUS-CMP) and The University of Winnipeg, Canada. This publication reflects the views only of the au- thor, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein. 4 The Soul of Solar Energy: Augustin Mouchot Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu The solar cooker according to Mouchot.pdf Historical Background: The solar cooker according to Augustin Mouchot 1 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Historical background: The solar cooker according to Augustin Mouchot In mid-nineteenth century, industrialization progressed at high speed. One of the side effects was the ne- cessity to have fuel for the seam engines that were the central power source in the factories. To France, this started to pose a major problem, as the coal deposits turned out to be limited and were almost ex- hausted. This was even more a problem as the potential imports could only come from England—the tra- ditional (economic) rival to France. Consequently, the French government promised financial support to any researcher who proposed promising concepts of how to avoid a dependency of France from English coal. This was the moment when the French secon- dary school teacher Augustin Mouchot entered the stage. Mouchot combined two devices that had been known previously: A blackened hollow cyl- inder containing water—a similar device had been used by the end of the eighteenth century by Horace Benedict de Saussure for making experi- ments on heat radiation. This was combined with a hollow mirror that was used to focus solar radia- tion on the cylinder. Already in 1861, Mouchot was able to produce steam with his device. In the following years, he intended to improve his set-up to make it more useful for technical purposes. The attempts were financially supported by the French government. Two outcomes can be named as direct results: On the one hand, Mouchot was able to develop solar cooking devices—items that were used in particular by the French army in their North Afri- can colonies. These devices enabled the soldiers to prepare hot meals without producing smoke, a detail relevant from a military perspective. These cookers were used until the 20th century. The other result of Mouchot’s attempts was a steam engine that was operated with steam pro- duced by his solar apparatus. Mouchot devised several of the engines; the largest was shown at the world exhibition in Paris in 1878. The conical mir- ror had a diameter of some five meters, and the engine could be used as a printing device and was also able to produce ice. Mouchot was awarded a gold medal for this machine. Yet, by this time, things had changed once again. A major problem of Mouchot’s ma- chine remained the mirror which was made with a silver coating—this tended to oxidize, thus reduc- ing the efficiency of the machine and requiring a constant cleaning of the mirror. However, another development turned out to be far more problem- atic for Mouchot: Miners had found new coal de- posits in Eastern France; consequently, the neces- sity for finding an alternative source of energy for the steam engine did not exist any longer. More- over, in a report, Mouchot’s machine was labeled as economically inefficient. As a result, the French government ceased to support Mouchot’s research financially. This brought his work to an end. References Kryza, F. (2003). The Power of Light: The Epic Story of Man’s Quest to Harness the Sun. New York: McGraw-Hill. Quinnez, B. (2011). Augustin-Bernard Mouchot (1825-1912), un missionnaire de l’énergie solaire. Assemblée Générale de Côte-d'Or de l'AMOPA, 30 mars 2011. [http://www.amopa21.fr/2011%20conference%20.htm]. Historical Background: The solar cooker according to Au- gustin Mouchot was written by Peter Heering with the support of the European Commission (project 518094-LLP- 1-2011-1-GR-COMENIUS-CMP) and the University of Flensburg, Germany. This publication reflects only the views of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsi- ble for any use which may be made of the information con- tained therein.
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