Biography-Christiaan Eijkman_ENG.pdf Biography: Christiaan Eijkman As a debilitating and, sometimes, fatal disease spread across the West Indies in the late nineteenth century, one man was devoting all his efforts to finding a cure for it. This man was Christiaan Eijkman, and the disease was beriberi. Through careful experimentation, including a massive study of over two-hundred-and-eighty thou- sand prisoners in Javanese prisons, Eijkman managed to find the cure. Using the findings of Eijkman’s study, scientists were able to isolate a nutrient called thiamin, also known as vitamin B1. Eijkman had, through his research, formed the basis for understanding the role of vitamins in nutrition, for which he received the Nobel Prize, together with Sir Frederick Hopkins, late in his life. Christiaan Eijkman was born on August 11, 1858 in the small town of Nijkerk, in The Netherlands. He was the seventh child of Christiaan Eijkman and Johanna Alida Pool. Christiaan’s father worked as a headmaster at the local school. When he was only a few years old, his family relo- cated to Zaandam, a larger city in the Netherlands. In Zaandam, he began his education at his father’s school. He progressed in his studies with ease and passed his university-entrance exams in 1875, at the age of 17. After high-school graduation, Christiaan chose to attend the Military Medical School at the University of Amsterdam. The government paid for his educa- tion on account of his signing up to be an army phy- sician upon graduation. In 1883, Christiaan gradu- ated with his doctorate. That same year, he was mar- ried to Aaltje Wigeri van Edema. Later that year, Christiaan was sent as the mili- tary’s chief medical officer to the island of Java in the Indies, accompanied by his new wife. There, he worked as an army surgeon for two years. Unfortu- nately, he contracted a severe case of malaria in 1885 and was forced to take sick leave. Unable to continue his research in Java during his recovery from malaria, Eijkman began studying a new field of medicine called bacteriology. He worked in Josef Forster's laboratory in Amsterdam and also in Robert Koch's bacteriological laboratory in Berlin, where he stayed for one year. During this time, his wife became ill and died on January 8, 1886, at the age of 27. Through his connections at Koch’s laboratory, he met Cornelis Adrianus Pekelharing and Cornelis Winkler, who were both part of a government com- mittee studying a disease called beriberi that was quickly spreading through the West Indies. Beriberi is a debilitating disease that involves weight loss and muscle weakness. Patients suffering from beriberi commonly lose their sense of feeling and control of their limbs, often leading to paralysis. In some cases, fluid collects in the legs, taxing the circulatory system, enlarging the heart, and causing heart failure. The disease can be fatal. Beriberi was increasingly becoming a national se- curity issue for the Netherlands. The mounting inci- dence of the disease among the soldiers and sailors had already resulted in the Dutch government having to recall a naval flotilla to Sumatra that had been sent there to curb pirate operations against merchant shipping. In October of 1886, the recently widowed Eijkman, still suffering from malaria, joined the committee, whose task was to find the cause of the disease so that it could be cured, or at least prevented. Once again, Eijkman traveled to the West Indies to work on the beriberi case at the new research insti- tute. When Pekelharing and Winkler were called to another research site, they requested that the research institute remain open and be made permanent in their absence. Eijkman was named its new director. His acceptance of the position marked the end of his military career. Along with this work, he also became the director of the Javanese Medical School, where he taught physiology and organic chemistry. He also remarried in 1888. With his wife Bertha Julie Louise van der Kemp, he had one son, Pieter Hendrik. For researching the disease, he used chickens in his experiments, injecting some of them with bacteria thought to cause beriberi, while leaving others un- treated. He found that all the chickens, even those not injected, quickly acquired the symptoms of beriberi. He repeated the experiment with different chickens and separated the chickens into individual cages, thinking that this would prevent the infected chick- Biography: Christiaan Eijkman 1 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christiaan_Eijkman.jpg ens from infecting the healthy ones. Like the previous experiment, however, all of the chickens exhibited the beriberi symptoms. Confused, he repeated his ex- periment in a new location to prevent any contami- nation, but this time, all the chickens recovered, leav- ing Eijkman even more perplexed. By watching what the chickens were being fed, he determined that beriberi was linked to diet. When the chickens were fed leftover cooked, polished rice, they suffered from symptoms similar to beriberi in hu- mans. When fed raw, feed-grade rice, the chickens recovered. After weeks of experimentation, Eijkman realized that the polished rice was a factor in causing beriberi, which explained why the disease was so prevalent in Asia, where polished rice was a common staple. After nine years of experimentation with animals, Eijkman needed some way to test his hypothesis with human cases. Since outbreaks of beriberi were preva- lent in prisons, he chose this confined environment for his next investigation and convinced one prison to change the rice being served to the prisoners from cooked, polished rice to unpolished rice. The result was that all of the cases of beriberi were cured. En- couraged by this result and with the help of A. G. Vorderman, the supervisor of the Civil Health De- partment of Java, Eijkman undertook a massive study in 1895. This study had surveyed nearly two- hundred-and-eighty thousand prisoners by the time it was completed. During the many months of trials, all the cases of beriberi were cured, but, regrettably, in the next year, Eijkman fell ill and returned home again on sick leave before the trials were completed, leaving Vordeman and others to complete the re- search. After returning home for good, Eijkman was ap- pointed to the position of professor of public health and forensic medicine at the Institute of Hygiene at the University of Utrecht. He contributed invaluable research to the fields of tropical diseases, and his work was recognized by scientific societies and health care commissions. In 1923, at age 65, Christiaan re- tired. Three years later, based on Eijkman’s trials and research into beriberi, B. C. P. Jaiisen and W. F. Do- nath discovered that unpolished rice contained a nu- trient they called thiamin (vitamin B1). Unknown to Eijkman, his research had formed the basis for the understanding of the role of vitamins in nutrition. When Christiaan Eijkman was awarded the Nobel Prize in medicine for his work in understanding beri- beri in 1929, he was unable to receive the award in person on account of his poor health. He succumbed to his lingering illness one year later, on November 5, 1930. References Allchin, D. (1996). Christiaan Eijkman & the cause of beriberi. In Doing Biology, Glenview: Harper Collins, pp. 116–127. Carpenter, K. J., & Sutherland, B. (1995). Eijkman’s contribu- tion to the discovery of vitamins. The Journal of Nutrition, 125(2), 155-163. Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. (2008). Eijkman, Christiaan. Retrieved March 18, 2013 from Encyclope- dia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2- 2830901294.html Jansen, B. C. P. (1950). C. Eijkman. Journal of Nutrition, 42, 2–8. Merritt, C., & Tan, S. Y. (2011). Christiaan Eijkman (1858– 1930): The vicar of vitamins. Singapore Medical Journal, 52(9), 652–653. Nobelprize.org (n.d.). Christiaan Eijkman - Biography. In The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1929. Retrieved March 1, 2013 from http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureate s/1929/eijkman.html Verhoef, J. (1998). Christian Eijkman: Early Nobel winner for beriberi research. American Society for Microbiology News, 64(2). Retrieved March 1, 2013 from http://newsarchive.asm.org/dec98/feature2.asp Biography: Christiaan Eijkman was written by Stephen Klas- sen, Sarah Dietrich, and Cathrine Froese Klassen, with the support of the European Commission (project 518094-LLP-1- 2011-1-GR-COMENIUS-CMP) and The University of Winnipeg, Canada. This publication reflects only the views of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein. 2 Biography: Christiaan Eijkman Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Eijkman-Simplex non veri sigillum.pdf Christiaan Eijkman: Simplex non veri sigillum 1 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Christiaan Eijkman: Simplex non veri sigillum Episode 1: More than coffee at Café Bauer It was a lazy summer afternoon in 1886 in Berlin, Germany at the popular Café Bauer. In one corner, a figure sporting a bushy moustache was hunched over his afternoon coffee, reading a newspaper. It was the 28-year-old Dutch doctor, Christiaan Eijkman. Eijkman motioned to the waiter, who came hurrying over, “I will have another coffee, please.” “Of course, sir,” replied the waiter, eyeing the Dutch newspaper in front of Eijkman. “What brings you to Berlin?” he asked, unable to suppress his curiosity. “I have come to study bacteriology with Professor Koch at the University to investigate the cause of beriberi.” “Beriberi?” inquired the waiter quizzically, “I have not heard of it.” Eijkman straightened up. “It is a disease prevalent in the Indies that has become an issue of national se- curity in the Netherlands.” “How so?” asked the overly curious waiter. Eijkman continued, “Last year, my government sent a naval flotilla to Sumatra to curb pirate operations against merchant shipping. They had to call off the operation on account of the alarming, increasing inci- dence of beriberi among both the sailors and soldiers.” The waiter leaned against the table, interest written all over his face. “Fascinating, indeed. It must be a very serious disease.” Eijkman nodded, “Yes, it is completely debilitating. It involves weight loss, muscle weakness, extreme fa- tigue, confusion, a loss of the sense of feeling in the limbs, and paralysis. Often, due to fluid collection, it manifests in the swelling of the legs, enlargement of the heart, and heart failure.” The waiter, realizing that he had not yet attended to the doctor’s request, concluded, “Very impressive work! I wish you every success. I’ll get your coffee immediately.” Eijkman nodded and turned back to the newspaper. Thereupon, another figure entered the café, strid- ing over to the bar, “One coffee, please. Have you a Dutch newspaper?” The waiter motioned towards the corner of the room, “The Dutchman over there has our only copy.” The newcomer made his way to the table in the corner, “Let me introduce myself: my name is Cornelis Winkler from Utrecht.” Eijkman put down his paper and stretched out his hand, “I am Christiaan Eijkman, lately of Am- sterdam, but before that from Jakarta, Java.” Winkler laughed, “What a coincidence! I am about to travel to Jakarta on a government commis- sion to investigate the cause of beriberi. I am a neu- rologist and have come to consult with Robert Koch about bacteriology.” Eijkman was astounded, “You don’t say! Why have we not met before? I am a physiologist working with Koch to prepare to investigate beriberi. As you are aware, Dr. Koch has advanced his new germ the- ory of disease, and I am convinced that our answer lies with that cause.” Winkler nodded, “Yes, I, too, believe that most disease results from microorganisms that infect the body or from toxins that poison the body.” The two launched into an animated conversation, forgetting all about their coffees. By the end of their impromptu meeting, they agreed to seek the ap- proval of the commission director, Dr. Pekelharing, for Eijkman to join the commission in Jakarta. So it was that the medical team, including Winkler’s research leader, Dr. Cornelis Pekelharing, and Eijkman’s research partner, Dr. M. B. Romeny, set out by steamship from Amsterdam on October 22nd of that year. They passed through the recently built Suez Canal and arrived in Jakarta, nearly half- way around the globe, on November 23rd. Their mission? To isolate the cause of beriberi in order to find a cure. Discussion 1 • What are the possible causes of disease? • What other diseases have symptoms similar to those of beriberi? 2 Christiaan Eijkman: Simplex non veri sigillum Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu • Can you think of any likely causes for the beriberi epidemic? • How would you begin to look for the cause? Episode 2: Looking for infection The first order of business for the team was to set up a laboratory. They obtained two rooms for that purpose in the Central Army Hospital. Fresh with the knowledge and techniques about bacteria that they had learned in Robert Koch’s laboratory, the approach was obvious to them. They would search for and isolate the bacterium responsible for beriberi and then show, using various animals, that they could induce the appearance of beriberi just by ex- posing an animal to it. They tested for the disease scientifically by observing tissue samples containing nerves under a microscope. If beriberi were present, then the nerves appeared disintegrated. During the next eight months, the team was able to isolate a bac- terium that they were certain was the right one. There was only one problem: try as they might, they could only observe a few animals which, upon being exposed to the bacteria, would get beriberi-like symptoms. By the summer, they were no longer so sure about their idea that the disease must be caused by a bacterium. Realizing that the term for the commis- sion was almost over, they met in their laboratory to examine their progress. As usual, Dr. Pekelharing took the initiative, “We must admit that our research up to this point has been inconclusive.” Eijkman mo- tioned to speak. “Yes, Christiaan, go ahead,” Pekel- haring nodded. Eijkman began, “You realize that we cannot meet Dr. Koch’s postulates for establishing the bacterial cause of a disease. We have, for example, not been able to re-infect animals with bacteria developed in cultures taken from other infected animals.” “You are right, of course, Christiaan,” said Dr. Pekelharing. The others nodded in agreement. “In the past,” Dr. Winkler interjected, “people have attributed beriberi to insufficient nourishment and to misery. Is that still a possibility?” Dr. Pekelharing shook his head, “Really, Cornelis, are you saying that the large-scale destruction of the nervous system that we have observed in sick ani- mals is being caused by hunger and grief?” Winkler blushed. Eijkman laughed at Pekelharing’s sarcasm and concluded, “That means that the true cause must be something coming from the outside. Is it a poison or an infection?” Pekelharing frowned, “Gentlemen, we can’t re- solve the issue here. I will simply have to write up my report in a cautious way. We are due to leave next week, you know.” Ejkman, again, motioned to reply, “I would like to volunteer to stay behind and continue the investi- gation.” Pekelharing nodded in approval, “That is cer- tainly noble of you, Christiaan—I will seek approval of the Governor to sponsor you.” The group disbanded, each to begin preparing for the long journey home to Amsterdam. Fortunately, they were successful in obtaining permission for Eijkman to stay in Java to continue the work. Discussion 2 • Why was the team uncertain about the cause of beriberi? • List some of the main hindrances to the research team’s lack of progress in their search for the cause of the disease. • What advice would you give to the research team? Episode 3: The chicken model of beriberi Christiaan Eijkman was in his laboratory, bend- ing over his microscope, deep in thought. Pounding footsteps came from the distance and entered the room. “Docteur, docteur, the chickens they are sick, the chickens they are sick.” “Slow down, Pierre!” Eijkman laughed. “What is wrong with the chickens?” Pierre was Eijkman’s new research assistant from France. “They are falling over like they are drunk!” Eijkman straightened up, the tone of his voice ris- ing in sudden excitement, “What? Does it look like beriberi?” “Yes, yes, I am trying to tell you…,” Pierre ges- tured eagerly as he spoke. “Then I will have to take tissue and blood sam- ples immediately to see if it is really neuro- degenerative, as beriberi is, and if I can culture a bac- terial sample.” The research work now proceeded swiftly. It was soon established that the symptoms were those of beriberi. Eijkman now had an animal model—one Christiaan Eijkman: Simplex non veri sigillum 3 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu could say a chicken model—for beriberi. He was cer- tain that this was the breakthrough for which he had been looking. To control his experiment carefully, Eijkman brought in chickens from outside the area and divided them into groups in separate cages, then exposed one group to the bacterial culture that he thought carried the beriberi. Something unexpected happened. Chickens from both groups soon exhib- ited the beriberi symptoms. “That is very strange,” said Eijkman “I had not realized that the disease was so contagious. Likely, the chickens from one group infected the others.” So he started over with disin- fected, clean cages and a new group of chickens, this time keeping one cage far away from the other. Again, chickens from both groups developed beri- beri symptoms. “That makes no sense whatsoever,” said Eijkman, “There must be another infection pathway of which I am not aware.” Despite the nega- tive outcome, Eijkman let the experiment go on for another few days while he tried to think of some- thing else to do. What happened next was not only unexpected; it was devastating for Eijkman. Suddenly, both groups of chickens began to recover from the disease. They actually began to run around, again. “Not only are my experiments inconclusive; they are negative. What will I do now?” Eijkman kept to himself for the next few days, reading intensely and often staring blankly into the distance, wondering if he would ever be able to find the cause of beriberi. Discussion 3 • Name all the factors that contributed to Eijkman’s confusion during his experimentation with the chickens. • What else, if anything, could Eijkman do to test his bacterial theory? Episode 4: Rice is not just rice Eijkman had let it be known that he was not to be disturbed, yet there was a timid knock on his labora- tory door. It was the animal caretaker, Rano. “Sir, my apologies—I have made a grave error,” he stuttered nervously. “What is it, Rano?” asked Eijkman. “Sir, I have been feeding the chickens with left- over cooked white rice from the kitchen.” Eijkman laughed, “That doesn’t sound too seri- ous—you are certainly not in trouble with me!” “No, no, you don’t understand—there is a new cook and he says it is against military regulations to feed mili- tary rice to civilian chickens.” Eijkman roared with laughter, “It certainly does not matter to me. You have, however, managed to cheer me up. So what are you going to do about your mistake?” Rano replied, “Sir, I already made the change weeks ago, but I was ashamed to tell you. I am giving the chickens feed-grade brown rice. Do you think that it will make them sick?” Eijkman almost jumped, “What? You have fed them differently for weeks?” he exclaimed. Instantly, he thought, “Could that be the cause of their inexpli- cable recovery?” Eijkman looked Rano straight in the eyes, “Rano, you have done the right thing—you are definitely not in trouble!” at which a very relieved look crossed Rano’s face. Eijkman’s mind began to spin. Already, he was beginning to contemplate experiments to test the diet of the chickens as he gave the caretaker strict instructions: “Rano, clean and disinfect all the chicken cages, but keep one of the sick chickens here for the next experiment. Also, get me ten new, healthy chickens, at once.” “Yes, sir, I will do it immediately,” said the all- too-happy Rano as he turned to leave the room. Eijkman kept the eleven chickens on a diet for five weeks. He fed two of the healthy chickens and the one sick chicken uncooked brown rice. Soon, the sick chicken got well, and the two healthy chickens stayed well. When he fed four of the healthy chickens cooked white rice, they soon all got sick. He then treated two chickens with the bacteria he suspected of causing the disease and fed them uncooked brown rice; yet, they remained healthy. The two remaining chickens—his control group—he kept feeding un- cooked brown rice, and they remained healthy. Eijkman thought about the results and concluded that, without a doubt, feeding white or polished rice resulted in the chickens acquiring beriberi, and feed- ing them rice containing the bran cured the disease. Yet, he could not explain the actual mechanism at work and continued to puzzle over it, thinking, “There may be some means by which the diet pro- duces poisoning in the digestive system. Perhaps, there is a way to let harmful bacteria grow. On the other hand, perhaps, the bran of the rice contains substances indispensible to life and health that do 4 Christiaan Eijkman: Simplex non veri sigillum Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu not exist in the grain of the rice. I just don’t know what it is.” Resolute, he never gave up, ever uncovering new possibilities and undertaking new variations in his investigations in search of the answer. On account of poor health, Eijkman had to leave Jakarta in 1896, never to return, but his move back to Amsterdam did not stop the research efforts, in either Java or the Netherlands, to find the exact cause of beriberi. Discussion 4 • What was Eijkman trying to find out with his different versions of diet for chickens? • Why, after determining that a diet of polished rice produced beriberi and unpolished rice cured it, did Eijkman continue to puzzle over the results of his experiment? Episode 5: Solving the puzzle Eijkman’s exacting and thorough work opened the way for other researchers to solve the puzzle. Without the foundation that he had laid, finding the solution would have been nearly impossible. Eijkman’s successor in Jakarta, Gerrit Grijns, was the first to be able to establish, for certain, that beriberi was caused by a deficiency and not a bacterial infec- tion or some kind of poisoning. He wrote, in 1901, that “There occur in various natural foods sub- stances which cannot be absent without serious in- jury to the peripheral nervous system. These sub- stances are easily disintegrated, which shows that they are complex substances and cannot be replaced by simple chemical compounds.”1 It remained up to the Polish scientist, Casimir Funk, however, to synthesize the various findings on nutritional deficiency diseases into a theory. He ac- counted for scurvy, beriberi, and many other dis- eases as those that break out if “an unvarying diet is partaken of for long periods” because of the “defi- ciency in a substance which is necessary for the me- tabolism.”2 Funk attempted to isolate the beriberi vitamin in 1911 and thought he had done so, but it is likely that his compound consisted mainly of niacin or vitamin B3, which is the factor in the deficiency disease pellagra. Thinking that the substance he had isolated was in the chemical class of amines, he named the newly discovered nutritional substances 1 Quoted in Carpenter (2012) pp. 221–222. 2 Funk 1912, p. 341 “vital amines.” Later, when it was discovered that these substances were not amines, their name was shortened to “vitamins.” It was not until 1926 that the substance responsi- ble for preventing beriberi—thiamine or vitamin B1—was isolated by a new research team that had replaced Eijkman in Java. Soon after Eijkman returned to the Netherlands, he had been appointed as professor of Bacteriology and Hygiene at the University of Utrecht. He became more and more preoccupied with his professorial duties. In 1912, he had taken on the University’s rec- tor position. In the following year, when he retired from the position, he gave a public lecture on his research work, which bore the provocative Latin title “Simplex non veri sigillum.” Indeed, “simplicity” had not proven to be “a characteristic of truth,” as ex- pressed in the epigram. Undeniably, the truth about vitamins uncovered during Eijkman’s lifetime had not been a simple matter, but an arduous scientific struggle. In 1929, Eijkman was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine “for his discovery of the antineuritic vita- min,” which was somewhat controversial on account of Gerrit Grijns not having been included. The No- bel Committee was not able to award Grijns because he had not been nominated that year. With Eijkman’s health rapidly deteriorating, the Commit- tee decided to make the award while they were still able to do so. Christiaan Eijkman died the following year at the age of 72. Discussion 5 • Why was it so difficult for the researchers to give up their bacterial theory? • Explain how the epigram, “Simplex non veri sigil- lum,” meaning simplicity is not a seal or mark of truth, applies to the story on Eijkman. • Do you know of any other science story to which this epigram could be applied? References Allchin, D. (1996). Christiaan Eijkman & the cause of beri- beri. In Doing Biology, Glenview: Harper Collins, pp. 116– 127. Allchin, D. (n.d.). Christian Eijkman and the cause of beri- beri. In: Teaching science through history. Retrieved March 1, 2013 from http://www1.umn.edu/ships/modules/biol/ beriberi.htm Christiaan Eijkman: Simplex non veri sigillum 5 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Bruyn, G. W., & Poser, C. M. (2003). The history of tropical neurology: Nutritional disorders. Canton, MA: Science History Publications. Carpenter, K. J. (2000). Beriberi, white rice and vitamin B: A disease, a cause and a cure. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. Carpenter, K. J. (2012). The discovery of Thiamin. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 61, 219–223. Carpenter, K. J., & Sutherland, B. (1995). Eijkman’s contribu- tion to the discovery of vitamins. The Journal of Nutrition, 125(2), 155-163. Carter, K. C. (1977). The germ theory, beriberi, and the defi- ciency theory of disease. Medical History, 21, 119–136. Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography (2008). Eijkman, Christiaan. Retrieved March 18, 2013 from Encyclope- dia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2- 2830901294.html Erdman, A. M. (1964). Cornelis Adrianus Pekelharing—A biographical sketch. The Journal of Nutrition, 83, 3–9. Funk, C. (1912). The etiology of deficiency diseases beriberi, polyneuritis in birds, epidemic dropsy, scurvy, experimen- tal scurvy in animals, infantile scurvy, ship beri-beri, pel- lagra. Journal of State Medicine, 20. Jansen, B. C. P. (1950). C. Eijkman. Journal of Nutrition, 42, 2–8. Merritt, C., & Tan, S. Y. (2011). Christiaan Eijkman (1858– 1930): The vicar of vitamins. Singapore Medical Journal, 52(9), 652–653. Rosenfeld, L. (1997). Vitamine—vitamin. The early years of discovery. Clinical Chemistry, 43(4), 680–685. Verhoef, J. (1998). Christian Eijkman: Early Nobel winner for beriberi research. American Society for Microbiology News, 64(2). Retrieved March 1, 2013 from http://newsarchive.asm.org/dec98/feature2.asp Acknowledgment: The author expresses his indebtedness to Douglas Allchin for providing resource materials and the interrupted story approach used in Christiaan Eijkman: Simplex non veri sigillum and to Sarah Dietrich for contrib- uting to the basic research. Christiaan Eijkman: Simplex non veri sigillum was edited by Cathrine Froese Klassen, with the support of the European Commission (project 518094-LLP-1-2011-1-GR- COMENIUS-CMP) and The University of Winnipeg, Canada and is based, in part on Historical Background: Nutrition, written by Andreas Junk, and on Biography: Christiaan Eijkman, written by Stephen Klassen, Sarah Dietrich, and Cathrine Froese Klassen. Christiaan Eijkman: Simplex non veri sigillum was written by Stephen Klassen with the support of the European Commission (project 518094-LLP-1-2011-1-GR- COMENIUS-CMP) and The University of Winnipeg, Canada. This publication reflects only the views of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein. 6 Christiaan Eijkman: Simplex non veri sigillum Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu EN_Guidelines_Eijkman.pdf Suggestions to Teachers (Eijkman and Beri-Beri) 1 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Suggestions to Teachers (Eijkman and Beri-Beri) Expected results After the lesson, the students are expected to: 1. Locate the way of design and the process of the Eijkman’s scientific researches as well as his contribution to the development of science, based on some of his experiments. 2. Write the reasons for: a) the appearance of avitaminosis in the human body, only from the absence of the vitamins C and B and b) the mediterranean diet being an adequate food for the avoidance of the avitaminosis. 3. Demonstrate how the false explanation of a successful scientific experiment, can lead to the false conclusions. 4. Write a text in order to demonstrate the role of the Eijkman’s scientific background for the false explanation of his research that was conducted in Indonesia. 5. Describe the characteristics of science and the ways it develops, according to the McComas’ list, based on the narration as well the lesson activities. About the activities of students The proposed students' activities are indicative and they aim at the accomplishment of the above expected outcomes. Moreover, the teacher may choose some of them for the teaching process in relation to its aims, the needs of students and the available time. Finally, she/he can create her/his own activities. About the emergence of the characteristics of science in the narrated story, these characteristics are quoted in the website, comprehensively (in classification of the stories by NOS). About the locating of the characteristics of Nature of Science in the proposed activities, indicatively, we can quote the following: A) The activity 2 concerns the characteristics of Nature of Science: a) “Science demands and relies on empirical evidence”, b) “Science has a subjective element” and c) “Science is a highly creative endeavor”. B) The activity 3 concerns the characteristic of Nature of Science: “Scientific knowledge is tentative but durable”. C) The activity 4 concerns the characteristic of Nature of Science, which are quoted in the above activities 2 and 3. 2 Suggestions to Teachers (Eijkman and Beri-Beri) Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Suggestions to Teachers (Eijkman and Beri-Beri) were written by Aikaterini Rizaki and Panagiotis Kokkotas with the support by the European Commission (Project 518094-LLP-1-2011-1-GR-COMENIUS-CMP) and the NKUA of Greece. This publication reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained there in. EN_LA_Eijkman.pdf Student’s Learning Activities (Eijkman and Beri-Beri) 1 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Student’s Learning Activities (Eijkman and Beri-Beri) Activity 1 You will watch a video with narration or listen to a story from your teacher for Christian Eijkman and his researches about the disease beri-beri. Please write the most important points of the story according to your view and discuss them in your group. (Indicative important points: the description of Eijkman’s experiments, Eijkman’s initial view about the disease beri-beri and the reason which had affected him for this explanation, …..) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………..………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2 Student’s Learning Activities (Eijkman and Beri-Beri) Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… Activity 2 At the following link you can find the description of Eijkman’s experiment with the chicken during his research for the cause of the beri beri disease. (http://www.nobelprize.org/educational/medicine/vitamin_b1/eijkman.html). The description of the experiment is as follows: During the first years of Eijkman's work at the institute in Java, two of his colleagues managed to extract micro-organisms from people who had died from beriberi. When they returned to Europe they left Eijkman behind as the institute's director. Eijkman tried to infect rabbits and monkeys with the micro-organisms. However, the animals didn't get sick. Eijkman concluded that beriberi must be a disease which took a long time to develop. To wait a very long time, until the rabbits or monkeys showed signs of beriberi, wouldn't work. He needed animals which developed the disease more quickly. It would also be good if they were cheap and easy to maintain. Eijkman bought chickens and housed them in large cages in the shadow under the institute's extended roof. He injected some of the chicken with the micro-organisms. After less than a month, all chickens got sick. Eijkman thought that the chickens which he had injected with micro-organisms had infected the ones without injections. Question 1. Based on the narration you have followed, what did push Eijkman to this conclusion? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… He bought new chickens and kept them, one by one, in smaller cages. But these chickens also got sick. Eijkman realized that the whole institute must be infected and decided to keep new chickens at another location. Question 2. What did lead Eijkman to this hypothesis? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………… http://www.nobelprize.org/educational/medicine/vitamin_b1/eijkman.html Student’s Learning Activities (Eijkman and Beri-Beri) 3 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu But when he did this, all the chickens got well. Eijkman couldn't understand what was happening. He hadn't done anything to cure them! The man who fed the chickens told Eijkman that he had given them cooked white rice during the period they got sick. It was leftover rice from the next-door hospital. Later, a new cook there didn't want to give him left over rice and he had gone back to feeding them with unpolished uncooked rice. It was after this that the chickens had recovered. When Eijkman understood that the disease had something to do with the diet, he decided to make trials. He did something like this... Question 3. Based on the results of the experiment, as described by the pictures above, what are the conclusions you can draw? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………..………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………… Question 4. Discuss about your conclusions with the other members of your group. Write down the common points and present them in class. Picture 1: Beggining of the experiment Picture 21: 5 weeks after 4 Student’s Learning Activities (Eijkman and Beri-Beri) Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………..………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………… Question 5. Eijkman has been awarded with a Nobel Prize for his research on the beri - beri disease. Discuss about the Nobel Prize. Please refer to other scientists you know that have been awarded with the Nobel Prize and write down two of them. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………..………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………… Activity 3 At the figure bellow you can find the Mediterranean diet pyramid and then a table for vitamins. Student’s Learning Activities (Eijkman and Beri-Beri) 5 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Picture 2: Mediterranean diet pyramid (Source: Oldways Preservation & Exchange Trust and The Harvard School.) Table 1: Information about vitamins Vitamin Function Deficiency symptoms Natural sources A Plays a role in the functions of the skin, night vision. Impaired night vision, skin problems. Liver, eggs, dairy products, carrots D Plays a role in the well-being of bones, teeth and joints, and calcium and phosphate metabolism. In children, rickets; in adults, osteomalacia. The sun, oily fish, dairy products, margarines and spreads, eggs. E Prevents the oxidation of fatty acids; protects cells. neuromuscular problems, peripheral nerve damage, muscular weakness, retinopathy, dementia, anaemia. Vegetable oil, nuts, almonds, fatty fish, whole grains, egg yolk. B1 or thiamine Helps to convert food into energy; an important part of metabolism and nerve and muscle function. Fatigue, nerve pain, walking problems, loss of appetite, constipation, muscle weakness, memory loss, disorientation, depression. Long-term deficiency can lead to the beriberi disease or heart failure. Meat, offal, whole grains, vegetables, eggs yolk, pulses. C or ascorbic acid Prevents oxidation in the metabolism of connective tissue, regulates immunity, skin function and collagen synthesis and improves iron absorption. Decreased immunity, problems in mucous membrane function, scurvy. Citrus fruit, berries, vegetables, potato. K Necessary for blood bleeding disorders, osteoporosis and Green vegetables, 6 Student’s Learning Activities (Eijkman and Beri-Beri) Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu coagulation and for the prevention of vascular calcification and bone health vascular calcification. such as broccoli, spinach, cabbage, cucumber, kidney, eggs, liver, cheese. Question 1. Based on the data above, do you consider that the Mediterranean diet is sufficient to prevent vitamin deficiency or the emergence of diseases such as beri-beri? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………… According to what is known from History: "During the period that followed the discovery of the continent of America and Australia sailors would travel for months without having the possibility to consume fresh fruits or vegetables. This resulted in the appearance of scurvy, which would decline and disappear as soon as the sailors arrived on land and put back to their diet fruits and fresh vegetables. Moreover beri-beri disease appeared in Ejkman’s experimental animals after a period of time during which they had been fed with milled rice and the disease resolved when they reverted to their diet with paddy rice.” In addition modern research has shown that: Vitamins are compounds found in food which are necessary for the normal metabolic functions of the body. The body is either unable to compose them, or does not compose them at the necessary quantities. Vitamins are divided into the fat-soluble (A, D, E, K) which are stored in the body, and the water-soluble (B, C) which are used by the body but their remnants are excreted. All vitamins are fairly well absorbed, while toxicity risk occurs mainly by excessive intake of the fat-soluble vitamins. Water soluble: the ones that dissolve in water, e.g. present in fruit juices Fat soluble: the ones which are dissolved in non-aqueous solvents and the animal organisms store them mainly in their adipose tissue. Based on the texts above, give a full and well documented response to the following question: Question 2. Why do these two vitamin deficiencies (scurvy and beri-beri) occur and not others that would be due to lack of vitamins A, D, E and K; Student’s Learning Activities (Eijkman and Beri-Beri) 7 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Discuss it in your group, write down and present a full and well documented response. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………… Activity 4 Using the list of ideas that describe the characteristics of science and the ways it develops, try to locate and write these ideas in the story you heard and the activities of this lesson. These ideas that scientists call Nature of Science (Nature Of Science-NOS- ) are: Characteristics of Nature of Science (NOS) 1. Science demands and relies on empirical evidence. 2. Knowledge production in science includes many common features and shared habits of mind. 3. Scientific knowledge is tentative but durable. 4. Laws and theories are related but distinct kinds of scientific knowledge. 5. Science is a highly creative endeavor. 6. Science has a subjective element. 7. There are historical, cultural, and social influences on science. 8. Science and technology impact each other, but they are not the same. 9. Science and its methods cannot answer all questions. Scientists argue that in order to learn science one must first understand what exactly science is. Because it is difficult to define science, scientists give a list of its characteristics. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 8 Student’s Learning Activities (Eijkman and Beri-Beri) Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………… Student’s Learning Activities (Eijkman and Beri-Beri) were written by Ioannis Vlachos and Aikaterini Rizaki with the support by the European Commission (Project 518094-LLP-1-2011-1-GR-COMENIUS-CMP) and the NKUA of Greece. This publication reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein. Historical background - Nutrition.pdf Historical Background: Nutrition Introduction As an emerging branch of science, trophology explores the means and effects of combining foods for maintaining a balanced nutrition and avoiding metabolic diseases. Even with the concern about the adequacy of one’s diet in terms of vitamins, proteins, starch, fruit and carbohydrates, nutrition must be understood beyond eating as a necessity. The roots of trophology, as a science, lie in historic scientific and sociological accomplishments. Initially, the key experiments to verify the links among consumption, energy, and work were conducted within the context of the sociological turmoil of the Industrial Revolution, a time when humans were seen as a resource or, perhaps, more precisely, as living machines. The consequences of industrialization with its new innovations during the late 18th and early 19th century in Europe and North America, such as the mechanization of textile manufacturing, forced countries to employ more workers to manage the increased workload The challenge of converting raw material and supplies into new goods was coupled with that of providing suitable nourishment for the rising number of workers. Hermann von Helmholtz (1821 – 1894) The groundwork for determining the mathematical relationship between raw materials and products and between food consumption and workload was laid by Hermann von Helmholtz (Helmholtz, 1915)1 in 1847 in his formulation of the law of the conservation of energy—the belief that every physical force stood in equilibrium with an equivalent counter-force In terms of physiology, the laws of energy conservation and energy conversion stand next to the ex- periments of Max Rubner who measured the energy converted from food into heat and mechanical work (Rubner, 1902). Several other scientists worked on a theory of nutrition and work to enhance human performance in industry and the military. Of equal importance was prevalence and cause of diseases and the need for cures, which had not yet been assimilated into a theory of trophology. The two most common deficiency diseases were beriberi (a word derived from the language of Polynesian natives meaning “I can’t move, I can’t move”) and scurvy, an illness well known to seamen. It took researchers until 1912 to uncover the nutritional component the vitamin—the “vital amin”—the lack of which was the cause of both diseases. Max Rubner (1854 – 1932) Consumption The well-known adage “No army can march on an empty stomach” illustrates the equilibrium between food consumption and work, but not, necessarily, the work typical for a soldier. Ancient sources written by Roman quartermasters around 100 AD reveal that Ro- man legionnaires lived on an average ration of some 850 grams of grain per day, complemented by meat, vegetables, and fruit (Roth 1995). The figures for the amount of food transported by the Macedonian troops of Alexander II, in his 13-year campaign against the Persian Empire four centuries earlier, equate to compa- rable rations (Hanson 1999, pp. 165 ff.). The accounts originating in the civilian life of Egyp- tian workers in Mesopotamia show a monthly ration of three bar of grain, resulting in an average of 700 grams of flour per worker per day (Huber 2006, pp. 303 – 330). Considering their work was possibly not as strenuous as that of the Macedonian or Roman infantry soldier, the figures, covering a time span from 1000 BC to 100 AD produce a reliable average of the daily nour- ishment requirement. The records all show that grain and meat were the basis of the daily diet of the workers. Historical Background: Nutrition 1 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu 2 Historical Background: Nutrition Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Work and Feeding the Poor Benjamin Thompson (1753 – 1814), known as Count Rumford after 1792, 1 was an American-born British officer who had fought on the British side during the American War of Independence. After gathering both political and military experience in England’s struggle with its renegade colonies, he returned to England in 1782.2 Put on half-pay, he soon left England to search for a new position among the armies of Europe and did so in Bavaria, where the Prince-elector hired him to conduct reforms on both the military and the social system of his country. Thompson took his leave from the British Army, was granted knighthood for his ser- vices to the British crown, and took up his new post in Munich on March 11, 1784. From 1784 to 1788, he worked on the reform pro- gram in Bavaria. He made an extensive investigation of the military and social systems of the two dominating countries in central Europe, Austria and Prussia, and compared the conditions and costs of the armed forces in these countries to those in Bavaria. In late 1788, he presented a reform program to the Elector of Bavaria. He stressed three particular aims to guide the reforms: 1. to end the discrimination and exclusion of the soldier as a professional, 2. to increase the number of troops hired and raise the wages paid to every soldier without raising the annual budget of the Bavarian Army, and 3. to permit the armed forces to serve in a civilian capacity in peacetime. The second and third aims, especially, led to Thompson’s major contribution in terms of feeding the masses. Since he proposed not to increase the budget of the Bavarian army while increasing the number of troops and their wages, he had to find a means to re- duce costs. The first measure was to lower the costs of the soldiers’ uniforms by employing Munich’s beggars in the recently founded militärisches Arbeitshaus (mili- tary workhouse). His plan also tackled the beggar prob- lem by educating the beggars and encouraging them to become independent and make a living.3 1 Thompson’s title Count Rumford refers to the American town in New Hampshire where he married his first wife. The town is called Concord today (see Bouton 1857). 2 Thompson served as Under-Secretary of State for the Colo- nies until 1781 and as Colonel of the King’s American Dra- goons until this regiment was withdrawn to England. 3 Rumford accounted that 7% of the inhabitants of Munich made a living from begging in the streets even though a large number of those beggars were obviously sane and able to work (see Möhl 1903, p.33). Attached to the workhouse was a soup kitchen, which soon became the key facility of the workhouse. Thompson figured out that he could prepare a meal for all the workers that would cost less than any individual would spend to nourish himself. The workers received a free lunch in the soup kitchen consisting of 20 ounces of soup. Thompson developed and published various recipes to prepare as much as 1200 portions of soup at one time, which became known as “Rumford soup.” Initially, it was a mixture of pearl barley, peas, salt, vinegar, and water, but later it was refined with the ad- dition of potatoes and sliced bread.4 Even though it provided a sound basis of carbohy- drates (from the potatoes and the barley) and protein (from the peas), there was, however, some criticism about the Rumford soup. While it had a highly filling effect on the consumers, it did not nourish them well – at least not the adults. Today’s calculations indicate that the first version of Rumford soup provided 570 calories, and the second version, with the substitution of pota- toes for some of the pearl barley, provided only 420 calories.5 Considering, by modern standards, that the 4 The publication of the recipe included the cost for the fuel used in the kitchen and the wages of the cook and the clerks who served the soup to the recipients (Thompson 1804, pp. 274 & 276). 5 Families were encouraged to bring their children to the military workhouse, where they could attend school and Figure 1: Original recipe of Rumford Soup No. 2. The first refinement made was to substitute parts of the barley with potatoes. The soup became considerably cheaper by the use of potatoes. Historical Background: Nutrition 3 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu adult daily intake should be approximately 2000 calo- ries, it is evident that the Rumford soups were efficient only in feeding someone at a low cost but not in meet- ing the daily nutritional requirement, especially for a solid day’s work in the military workhouse. In this re- spect, it failed to fulfill Rumford’s plan to nourish his workers. Welfare organizations, however, adopted the Rumford soup recipe and used it to support homeless people and those unable to work during the Napoleon wars.6 Balancing Input and Output Santorio Santorio (1561 – 1636) was an Italian physi- cian who published his treatise Ars de statica medicina in 1614. The book deals mainly with research on hu- man metabolism and was, in part, based on experi- ments Santorio conducted on himself. On the opening page of his book, one finds an illustration of the ex- help with minor tasks if they wanted to do so (see Redlich 1971, pp. 184 – 216). 6 Today, a broad variety of “Rumford’s soups” exist whose recipes may not have much in common with the soups originally devised by Thompson for use in the soup kitch- ens of the workhouses. perimental setup used. It shows Santorio sitting on a scale (a so-called weighing chair) and a table with cut- lery and dishes next to him. Over a period of some 30 years, he documented the weight of what he ate and drank (ingesta), as well as the excrement (excreta), and accounted for the difference between those two as in- sensible perspiration (Toellner 2000, p. 2371). He found out that the “weight” of the insensible perspiration–2.5 pounds per day on average–was greater than one of his excrements. Santorio accounted for a number of factors such as illness, age, physical activity, nourishment, and sleep, which could increase or decrease the insensible perspiration. Additionally, he invented measurement devices to determine pulse and body temperature. His findings are the first results from a long-term study on human metabolism. Energy in Combustion Whereas Santorio concentrated on the weight of the nourishment he consumed, French scientist Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier (1743 – 1794) focused on heat and combustion.7 The definition of heat was still driven by the ideas of the phlogiston theory. Although this theory was subsequently abandoned in Lavoisier’s time, Lavoisier, himself, contributed a major part to this sci- entific revolution. He strongly believed in the fact that mass was conserved in chemical reactions, an idea originating from the scientific endeavors of the Enlightenment. The idea of mass conservation was the key to one of his most important findings in chemistry, namely, oxidation. Lavoisier realized that when a metal became rusty, the mass of the calcified metal (“calx”, usually weighed in powdered form) had a greater weight than the origi- nal piece of metal. Lavoisier also found that the process could be reversed, that is, when the calx was reduced to the metal by heating, its weight decreased. The phlogis- ton theory could not explain these changes of masses because heat, according to prevailing ideas, was an im- ponderable (weightless) element. Lavoisier developed the idea that the composition of air might be the key to the changes in mass and aligned his experiments with this theory. The theory of combustion could not be further de- veloped until Lavoisier and Priestley, a British chemist, combined their respective scientific findings. The two respected one another mutually even though they had different opinions on the nature of combustion. 7 The Encyclopedia Britannica honors Lavoisier’s accom- plishments by calling him “Father of Modern Nutrition,” online version http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/332700/Antoi ne-Laurent-Lavoisier, dated March 21, 2012 Figure 2: Santorio Santorio in his weighing chair http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/332700/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/332700/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier 4 Historical Background: Nutrition Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Priestley’s views were strongly related to the phlogiston theory, but he controlled his experimental environment better than Lavoisier. Priestley was keenly aware that the air produced during an experiment was different from normal air.8 Lavoisier repeated the experiment of heating common red precipitate of mercury in the same manner as Priestley but paid closer attention to the gas produced in the process. Following his analysis, he found the difference between the experimental gas and fresh air, isolating the element involved in the calcifica- tion process and called it oxygen, referring to the Greek words for “making something sharp” (freely interpreted as “acid producer because of the sour taste of acids). Although Priestley had conducted the same experi- ment, he had not identified oxygen as an element; in- stead, he characterized the gas produced as “de- phlogistated air,” strictly following the phlogiston the- ory. Lavoisier used his newly found knowledge to in- clude oxygen as part of a chemical reaction and was able to extend his theory to the effects of calcination and combustion. Energy in Food Today, the word calorie is synonymous with energy. Many products in modern supermarkets identify the contained energy in kilocalories and the amount of car- 8 Experiment conducted by Joseph Black in 1750 in which he discovered carbon dioxide. bohydrates, fat, and protein in a diagram printed on the product’s packing.9 The etymology of the word “caloric” goes back to the time of Lavoisier and the phlogiston theory when heat was considered to be an imponderable chemical element inherent in every body. The idea of heat as an element has been abandoned, but the word energy still reflects this very notion. It is an expression originating from the Greek language meaning “inherently affect- ing,”10 which was introduced by William Rankine in 1853. Rankine defined energy as “a power to change in opposition to resistance.” He, furthermore, distin- guished between “actual or sensible” energy (e.g., en- ergy of movement) and “potential or latent” energy Rankine, 1853, pp. 109–117). Mid–nineteenth-century science was intensely oc- cupied with the necessity of workers acquiring energy for their work in factories. After von Helmholtz’s publi- cation on the conservation of the “living force,” 11 it seemed obvious working men had to convert their food into mechanical work and that these two sides of an equation, yet entirely unknown, should, nonetheless, be equal. The energy could seemingly be provided by any kind of food because some types of food were appar- ently able to substitute for one another. This was most convenient if one looked upon nourishment as a fuel that had to be converted into work, as the transforma- tion process was now nothing more than the energy gain of a chemical reaction, independent of the nour- ishment in its physical form. In this way, the physiology could be understood by means of analytical chemistry. The German physiologist and hygienist, Max Rub- ner, worked in the domain of thermodynamics for sev- eral decades and eventually presented experimental re- sults by which he intended to prove the validity of the physical law of energy conservation for human or ani- mal subjects. He defined heat as a measure for the in- tensity of life processes. To support his idea, Rubner designed an experi- mental setup to control the products of the energy con- version processes in an animal’s body. The animal calo- rimeter shown in the picture above was an isolated chamber into which a single dog was placed. This chamber was equipped with measurement devices for pressure and temperature and also for the proportions of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the chamber. The 9 In 1860, Max Rubner declared that one calorie is the amount of energy needed to heat up one gram of water from 4 to 5 degrees centigrade (see Ziegler 1922, pp. 520 – 526). 10 Duden, Fremdwörter, Eintrag Energie 11 The term “living force” was then still used synonymously with today’s “energy.” Figure 3: Lavoisier experimenting to determine the compo sition of water. Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica Onl - ine Historical Background: Nutrition 5 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu chamber offered little space for movement so that the dog could not waste his energy in floundering. The idea was that all the energy given to the animal by the food supply had to be turned into heat since conversion into mechanical work would not be possible. Rubner con- cluded that the entire energy contained in the food was eventually converted into heat (diet-induced ther- mogenesis).12 After the amount of energy stored in the carbohy- drates, fat, and proteins had been determined, Rubner made efforts to distinguish between the ability of the human body to convert its energy into heat and me- chanical work. The idea was to identify the substance which was least converted into heat because that would mean that the rest of the energy could be converted into mechanical work. He identified proteins as the sub- stance where the heat-to-energy ratio was least favor- able in terms of producing work from food. If one was a follower of the general idea of the industrial age with the human body at the intersection of energy, cost, and workload, this was very convenient. The major source ve- 12 Elizabeth Neswald, private communication for proteins was meat, which was expensive compared to grain or potatoes, the latter being the major sources for carbohydrates (Rubner, 1902). Since workers should convert their food into work, it seemed obvious that meat was not necessary for a balanced diet. Conse- quently, meat, an expensive commodity, should be given as brain food only to persons who did intellectual work. If one takes into account that at times the human body does not need energy for converting it into me- chanical work, one would come to an alternate conclu- sion. The history of Liebig’s meat extract shows that meat is not the perfect brain food, as such. In the mid1800s, chemistry professor Justus von Liebig be- came well known among the community of chemists. Most of the experiments he conducted were in the area of the new organic chemistry, a branch which scientists thought could not be studied outside of living organ- isms.13 Investigators in organic chemistry were trying to determine the composition of almost any organic substance. Liebig invented an apparatus, called the fi bulb device, with which he could determine the amount of carbon in any organic substance. He was, however, best known for his work on the physiology of animals and also on agricultural chemis- try. Liebig’s key assumption was that, in principle, the process of fat generation during digestion could be demonstrated entirely by means of laboratory chemis- try. Although heavily debated during his lifetime, the assumption turned out to be correct; hence, Liebig was 13 Friedrich Wöhler changed this in experiments between 1824 and 1828 when he synthesized the organic substances oxanic acid and carbamide. Figure 4: Rubner’s animal calorimeter on display during the exhibition “Energie = Arbeit” in Berlin 2010; photography made by Elke Jung-Wolff; reproduction by courtesy of Stiftung Brandenburger Tor, Berlin (Copyrights Stiftung Brandenburger Tor) Figure 5: Commemorative stamp of Justus von Liebig, issued by the Bundespost (Germal Federal Postal Service) in 2003, Liebig’s 200th birthday. Von Liebig is positioned between the Meat Extract, a precursor to today’s instant soups, and the five-bulb device (formerly called Kali-Apparat, Potassium Apparatus), by which the amount of carbon within an un- known substance could be determined. 6 Historical Background: Nutrition Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu the first scientist who successfully linked chemistry, physiology, and medicine. His important contribution to the world of nutri- tion, Liebig’s meat extract, was a byproduct of his at- tempt to help a friend overcome a serious illness. In 1853, Emma Muspratt, daughter of an English friend of Liebig’s, suffered severely from typhoid fever during her stay in Munich, where Liebig had held a professor- ship since 1852. She was unable to eat, and her bowels were incapable of processing solid food. Liebig knew that there was no standard method to nourish someone suffering from typhoid fever and determined that the only way to nourish the patient would be by introduc- ing a meat extract into her body. The extract was made by grinding chicken meat which was then placed into an aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid. After 12 hours, Liebig filtered the remains of the meat from the liquid that contained the protein almost intact. He then neutralized the acid and had Emma Muspratt drink it. She recovered within a short period of time (Judel 2003, pp. 6–15). Because the production of the extract was highly elaborate, the meat extract could not be turned into a commercial success. It was, however, produced and sold by the Munich pharmacist von Pettenkofer as a remedy for sick persons who were unable to eat. Physical and Physiological Calorific Value Knowing about the existence of oxygen was not suffi- cient for explaining the reasons for food components being combusted within the body, at least not until An- toine Lavoisier was able to design experiments in which he concluded that some form of combustion must take place within the human body. The development of heat in chemical processes was the key point of interest to the French scientists Simon Laplace and Antoine Lavoisier. They invented the ice- calorimeter, a sophisticated device to determine the quantity of heat developed by an animal, or which was found latent in solid bodies (Laplace & Lavoisier 1780, p. 355). The heat was used to melt down ice, and the amount of water originating from the process was, in turn, equivalent to the amount of heat originating from the chemical reaction. Together with his assistant, Armand Séguin, Lavois- ier also conducted experiments on how inhaled air is changed by combustion during physical work. He de- vised an experimental setup where a test person would inhale atmospheric air by means of a full-face mask during the measurements. This mask was especially de- vised to lead the exhaled air into a flask containing al- kali liquid. The carbon dioxide in the flask initiated a chemical reaction in which an indissoluble alkali car- bonate was generated. The exhaled air could be ob- served in the flask as bubbles, and the alkali carbon di- oxide precipitated during the process and accumulated on the flask’s bottom. The experiment was conducted in two different ways, first, with a person at rest and, second, with a per- son at work. Lavoisier already assumed that the pur- pose of the human respiration process was to produce heat rather than to supply oxygen for the body. Conse- quently, he compared the output of the exhaled gases to the inhaled gases, in addition to the person’s tempera- ture. The final conclusion from the experiments with Séguin was that animals combusted organic material by means of the inhaled oxygen. Calorimeters, in general, measure the heat devel- oped by chemical reactions. Laplace and Lavoisier had already documented that animals turn organic sub- stances into heat. The next step was to determine how much heat could be developed by any substance, the heat being measured in calorimeters by burning the substance in question to ashes. The heat that is devel- oped in addition to the heat supplied to the reaction is the physical calorific value. Figure 6: Ice-calorimeter in the design of Laplace and Lavois- ier (1780). Ice was filled into the partition wall to isolate the chamber from the laboratory environment and also into the main chamber (with the basket). The target containing or d veloping heat was placed in the basket and melted the ice. The amount of drained water was equivalent to the heat develope in the reaction. e- d Historical Background: Nutrition 7 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu The calorimeter in the style of Hopkins (see Fig. 7) determines the amount of energy released through a chemical reaction by pouring the reacting liquids into a common reaction chamber. Two thermometers are used to monitor the alteration of temperature during the reaction. The physical calorific value is not entirely relevant as far as matters of the human metabolism are con- cerned. The calorific value of any nourishment varies for every species that consumes it; hence, the relevant value here is the physiological calorific value. It can be roughly determined by burning the excrement of the animal or human in question and comparing this value with the physical calorific value of the food consumed. The difference will then be the physiological calorific value. It has to be noted, though, that the physiological calorific value cannot be regarded to be an exact value. It varies not only from species to species but is, more or less, a personal value of the animal (or human) who is being tested. Nutrition for Prevention of Deficiency Diseases One of the oldest diseases known to seafarers is scurvy, today known to be caused by lack of Vitamin C. The oldest reports about sailors who suffered from this defi- ciency disease date back to the days of antiquity in Egypt. It was well known that men aboard trading ships became sick, but the reason was unknown. Due to the necessity of having to operate as a viable unit, ships had large amounts of zwieback and brined meat onboard because these could be stored over a longer period of time. These products, which would deliver a good basis for the energy needed every day, could be supple- mented with fish or cheese; however, with the latter be- ing prone to spoil within a short time, a substitute was needed when these had been consumed. A cure for scurvy was not found until the 18th cen- tury when a Scottish physician named James Lind (1736 – 1812) found a treatment to overcome this sick- ness (Lind 1753, pp. 192–196). He conducted an ex- periment on a dozen persons who were apparently af- fected by scurvy and showed most of the already well- known documented symptoms. He divided the patients into six pairs and gave them each a specific diet in order to test the effects of nutrition and also of hygiene. After 14 days, Lind was able to conclude that the only group who had overcome all of the scurvy symptoms was the one who had oranges and lemons on their specific menu. He left it to the experience of others to confirm the efficacy of these fruits, meaning he was well aware of having found a cure but not of determining the rea- son for the high effectiveness of the cure. The research on beriberi, a deficiency disease caused by lack of Vitamin B1, was even more successful. It began with different assumptions about the possible causes of the illness and was founded on wrong conclu- sions on why it can be cured. The principal scientist in- vestigating beriberi was the Dutch Christiaan Eijkman (1858 – 1930) who had the chance to explore the cause and cure of beriberi in what today is called a large-scale study. After advanced training in Germany, where Koch had recently identified bacteria as the cause of tuberculosis and cholera, Eijkman was convinced that beriberi was caused by generic germs, as well, and tried to prove it in a carefully controlled study (Allchin 1996). The state of Java, where Eijkman conducted his experiments, had, at that time, some 280,000 prisoners. Eijkman ordered a diet of rice for these prisoners: one of polished rice, one of unpolished rice, or a mixture of both. He then recorded the incidences of beriberi among the various groups of prisoners (Eijkman 1897, pp. 187 – 194). Other factors concerning hygiene which could have caused illnesses, such as ventilation or per- meability of floors to water, had been ruled out. Eijkman concluded that the prisoners who lived on the polished-rice diet were much more affected by beri- beri than the others. From an older study, he had de- Figure 7: Calorimeter, Nevil Monroe Hopkins, Experimental Electrochemistry (1905). This calorimeter was used to meas- ure the heat developed during the reaction of two liquids. The drain container D is also the reaction chamber into which the second liquid from storage container G is con- veyed. Two thermometers, I and J, are introduced into the reaction chamber and the insulating wall to control the heat developed by the chemical reaction. 8 Historical Background: Nutrition Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu termined that the white rice contained the germ that caused beriberi and that the red coating, which was re- moved by polishing the rice, provided an antitoxin. This point is crucial to understanding why successful experiments can still lead to wrong conclusions. Since then, it has been shown that beriberi is a deficiency dis- ease resulting from a permanent lack of an essential nu- trient and not one caused by an active, infection- causing germ. Casimir Funk was probably the first researcher who was able to coalesce all of the effects of deficiency dis- eases into a constructive theory (Funk 1912, pp. 341– 368). He accounted for scurvy, beriberi, and many other diseases as those which break out if “an unvaryin diet is partaken of for long periods” because of the “de- ficiency in a substance which is necessary for the me- tabolism” (Funk 1912, p. 341). Funk stated that all but one of the diseases covered in his 1912 paper could be cured simply by adding a new class of organic sub- stances, which he called vitamins (short form for vital amin, referring to the chemical structure of the new substance), to one’s diet. He distinguished the vitamins already discovered by contemporary researchers by stating which disease each cures; for example, today’s vitamin C would have been the “scurvy vitamin” and vitamin B1 the “beriberi vitamin.” Funk also illustrated the method and the amount of the beriberi vitamin that could be precipitated from an aqueous solution, as well as the chemical formula for the vitamin. g He also gave an illustration of its curative effects by administering a dose of the beriberi vitamin to birds suffering from beriberi. A minute dose of 40 milligrams was sufficient to cure a pigeon in a very short time, and it also prevented the reappearance of beriberi for a time span of seven to twelve days even when the pigeon was placed on a polished-rice diet again. Two things seemed to be obvious from this experiment: first, the vitamin as a curative agent seemed to have activated the curative process, and second, the body is able to store and utilize the vitamin efficiently. Acknowledgments The author wishes to thank Don Metz for his patience of job in correcting faulty terms in the author’s manuscript and to Cathrine Froese Klas- sen and Stephen Klassen for detailed editing of the document. References Allchin, D. (1996). Christiaan Eijkman & the Cause of Beri- beri. In Doing Biology, Glenview: Harper Collins. Bouton, N. (1857). The History of Concord: From Its First Grant in 1725 to the Organization of the City Government in 1853. Concord: Benning W. Sanford. Eijkman, C. (1897). Ein Versuch zur Bekämpfung der beri- beri. Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie für klinische Medizin, 149. Funk, C. (1912). The etiology of deficiency diseases beriberi, polyneuritis in birds, epidemic deopsy, scurvy, experimen- tal scurvy in animals, infantile scurvy, ship beri-beri, pel- lagra. Journal of State Medicine, 20. Hanson, V. D. (1999). The Wars of the Ancient Greeks, Lon- don: Cassell & Co. Wellington House. Helmholtz, H. von. (1915). Ueber die Erhaltung der Kraft. In: Wilhelm Engelmann, Ed., Ostwalds Klassiker der exakten Wissenschaften, no. 1. Leipzig. (On the Conservation of Force). Huber, I. (2006). Von Affenwärtern, Schlangenbeschwören und Palastmanagern: Ägypter im Mesopotamien des ersten vorchristlichen Jahrtausends. In R. Rollinger, & B. Trusch- negg (eds.), Altertum und Mittelmeerraum: die antike Welt diesseits und jenseits der Levante. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. Judel, G. K. (2003). Die Geschichte von Liebigs Fleischextrakt. Spiegel der Forschung (Universität Gießen), 20(1), 6–15. Figure 8: Sketch of Funks distillation process to obtain the beriberi vitamin. He states in his 1912 publication, that an analogue process could also be used to precipitate the scurvy vitamin. Figure reproduced from Funk 1912, p. 347. Laplace, S., & Lavoisier, A. de. (1780). Mémoir sur la chaleur. Mémoirs de l’Académie des sciences. Lind, J. (1753). A treatise on the scurvy, London. Möhl, F. K. (1903). Die Vorläufer der Organisation der heuti- gen Armenpflege in München, insbesondere das Ar- menpflegeinstitut des Grafen Rumford. Bamberg. Rankine, W. (1853). On the General Law of the Transforma- tion of Energy. Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Sci- ence, Series 4, 5(30). Redlich, F. (1971). Science and Charity: Count Rumford and his Followers. International Review of Social History, 16(2). Roth, J. P. (1995). The logistics of the roman army at war. Lei- den: Brill Publishing. Rubner, M. (1902). Die Gesetze des Energieverbrauchs bei der Ernährung. Leipzig/Wien. (The laws of energy consump- tion in the field of nutrition). Rubner, M. (1902). Gesetze des Energieverbrauchs bei der Ernährung. Leipzig. Santorio, S. (1614). Ars de statica medicina. Thompson, B. Count Rumford (1804). Kleine Schriften poli- tischen, ökonomischen und philosophischen Inhalts. München. Toellner, R. (Ed.). (2000). Illustrierte Geschichte der Medizin, Vol. V. Augsburg: Weltbild Verlag. Ziegler, M. (1922). The history of the calorie in nutrition. Sci- entific Monthly, 15(6), 520–526. Historical Background: Nutrition was written by Andreas Junk with the support of the European Commission (project 518094-LLP-1-2011-1-GR-COMENIUS-CMP) and the Uni- versity of Flensburg, Germany. This publication reflects only the views of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the informa- tion contained therein. Historical Background: Nutrition 9 Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu 10 Historical Background: Nutrition Storytelling Teaching Model: http://science-story-telling.eu Introduction Energy in Food Nutrition for Prevention of Deficiency Diseases Historical Ressources.pdf A Primary Sources Eijkman, Christiaan: Polyneuritis in Chickens, or the Origin of Vitamin Research: Papers, Basel 1990. Funk, Casimir: The Etiology of the Deficiency Diseases. Beri-beri, Polyneuritis in Birds, Epidemic Deopsy, Scurvy, Experimental Scurvy in Animals, Infantile Scurvy, Ship Beri-Beri, Pellagra, in: Journal of State Medicine 20 (1912), S. 341–368. B Secondary Sources Allchin, Douglas: Christiaan Eijkman & the Cause of Beri-Beri, Doing biology, New York, NY 1996. Carpenter, Kenneth J/Sutherland, B: Eijkman’s Contribution to the Discovery of Vitamins, in: Journal of nutrition 125, Ausgabe 2 (1995), S. 155–163. Carpenter, Kenneth/Teunis, Annet: The Birth of Vitamin Studies: Eijkman in Java, in: Chemical heritage 13, Ausgabe 2 (1996), S. 32. Luyken, R/Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (KITLV) (Leiden): Eijkman’s Discovery of the Vitamins and some History of Nutrition Research in Indonesia, Leiden 1992. Mossel, D.A.A: Christiaan Eijkman: Physician, Utrecht University Professor and Nobel Laureate: A Short Dissertation on the Impact of, and Tribute to, his Career in Public Health World-Wide, Utrecht 1998. links.pdf http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X9qnaFTJh5Y& Student Workbook on Eijkman and Vitamins.pdf CHRISTIAAN EIJKMANN SIMPLEX NON VERI SIGILLUM Student Workbook: Please, hand in to your teacher at the end of each class. Student name: ___________________________ Date of class: ________________________ Student Workbook: Christiaan Eijkmann: Simplex non veri Sigilum 1 As a debilitating and sometimes fatal disease spread across the West Indies in the late nineteenth century, one man devoted his efforts to searching for a cure. This man was Christiaan Eijkman and the disease was beriberi. Who Was Christiaan Eijkman? Christiaan was born in 1858 in the small town of Nijkerk, in The Netherlands. He was the seventh child of Christiaan Eijkman and Johanna Alida Pool. Christiaan’s father was headmaster at the local school. When young Christiaan was only a few years old, his family relocated to Zaandam, a larger city in the Netherlands. In Zaandam, he began his education at his father’s school. He progressed with ease, and, in 1875, at the age of 17, he passed his university entrance exams. After his high-school graduation, Christiaan chose to attend the Military Medical School at the University of Amsterdam. The government paid for his university education on account of his signing up to be an army physician upon his eventual graduation. He graduated with his doctorate in 1883. Later that year, Christiaan was sent as the military’s chief medical officer to the island of Java in the Indies. His work as army surgeon lasted only two years due to his contracting a severe case of malaria, forcing him to take a sick leave. Unable to continue his research in Java during his recovery, Eijkman began studying a new field of medicine called bacteriology. He worked in Josef Forster's laboratory in Amsterdam and also in Robert Koch's bacteriological laboratory in Berlin, where he stayed for one year. Our story begins during Christiaan’s stay in Berlin. The story of Christiaan Eijkmann consists of five episodes. You will find out the meaning of the mysterious title “Simplex non veri sigillum” at the end of the last episode. Student Workbook: Christiaan Eijkmann: Simplex non veri Sigilum 2 Episode 1: More than coffee at Café Bauer Instructions: Step 1 Listen carefully as your teacher presents Episode 1 of the story. Instructions: Step 2 Your teacher will assist you in forming discussion groups. Discuss possible answers to the following questions. a) What are the possible causes of disease? b) Can you think of any likely causes for the beriberi epidemic? c) How would you begin to look for the cause? Instructions: Step 3 In the space below, please, summarize the answers formulated in your group. __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ Instructions: Step 4 Your teacher will discuss your answers with you in class. Student Workbook: Christiaan Eijkmann: Simplex non veri Sigilum 3 Episode 2: Looking for infection Instructions: Step 1 Listen carefully as your teacher presents Episode 1 of the story. Instructions: Step 2 Your teacher will assist you in forming discussion groups. Discuss possible answers to the following questions. a) Why was the team uncertain about the cause of beriberi? b) What advice would you give to the research team? Instructions: Step 3 In the space below, please, summarize the answers formulated in your group. __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ Instructions: Step 4 Your teacher will discuss your answers with you in class. Student Workbook: Christiaan Eijkmann: Simplex non veri Sigilum 4 Episode 3: The chicken model of beriberi Instructions: Step 1 Listen carefully as your teacher presents Episode 1 of the story. Instructions: Step 2 Your teacher will assist you in forming discussion groups. Discuss possible answers to the following questions. a) Why were the experiments so disappointing? b) What advice would you have for Eijkman? Instructions: Step 3 In the space below, please, summarize the answers formulated in your group. __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ Instructions: Step 4 Your teacher will discuss your answers with you in class. Student Workbook: Christiaan Eijkmann: Simplex non veri Sigilum 5 Episode 4: Rice is not just rice Instructions: Step 1 Listen carefully as your teacher presents Episode 1 of the story. Instructions: Step 2 Your teacher will assist you in forming discussion groups. Discuss possible answers to the following questions. a) What was Eijkman trying to find out with his many versions of diet? b) Why could Eijkman not find an explanation? c) What advice would you have for Eijkman? Instructions: Step 3 In the space below, please, summarize the answers formulated in your group. __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ Instructions: Step 4 Your teacher will discuss your answers with you in class. Student Workbook: Christiaan Eijkmann: Simplex non veri Sigilum 6 Episode 5: Solving the puzzle Instructions: Step 1 Listen carefully as your teacher presents Episode 1 of the story. Instructions: Step 2 Your teacher will assist you in forming discussion groups. Discuss possible answers to the following questions. a) Why was it so difficult to discover the cause of beriberi? Instructions: Step 3 In the space below, please, summarize the answers formulated in your group. __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ Instructions: Step 4 Your teacher will discuss your answers with you in class.
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